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TECHNICAL    EXPOSITION 


TECHNICAL    EXPOSITION 

A  Textbook  on  the  Application 
of  Exposition  to  Technical 
Meriting,  Designed  for  Students 
in  Scientific,  Agricultural,  and 
Engineering  Colleges 

by 
KARL  OWEN  THOMPSON,  A.M. 


ASSOCIATE   PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH   AT 

CASE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE 

CLEVELAND,   OHIO 


HARPER   &   BROTHERS    PUBLISHERS 
NEW   YORK   AND   LONDON 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Copyright,  1922 

By  Harper   £r   Brothers 

Printed  in  the  U.  S.  A. 

First  Edition 

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fcfn    VvU 

HEPT; 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 

PREFACE 


I.  THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD     ......    ...        i 

The  types  of  writing  —  Narration  —  Description  — 
Argumentation—  Exposition  —  The  importance  of  ex- 
position —  Exposition  and  argumentation  —  The  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  exposition  —  The  forms  of  exposi- 
tion —  The  methods  of  exposition. 

II.  DEFINITIONS  OF  WORDS    ..........      IS 

Application  of  exposition  to  words  —  The  process  of 
definition  —  Kinds  of  definitions  —  Methods  of  defini- 
tion —  Rules  for  a  definition  —  Synonyms. 

III.  THE  SOURCES  OF  A  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY  ....      27 

The  meaning  of  the  word  "technical"  —  The  im- 
portance of  the  sources  of  a  technical  vocabulary  — 
Racial  contributions  —  The  composite  nature  of  Eng- 
lish —  The  characteristics  of  American  speech—  The 
application  to  technical  writing  —  Separate  words. 

IV.  THE  FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS      ....      38 

Language  expansion  —  Methods  of  language  growth 
—  Use  of  prefixes  and  suffixes  —  Common  prefixes  — 
Common   suffixes  —  Anglo-Saxon   forms—  The    literal 
meaning  of  compound  words  —  Compounding  separate 
words—  Changes  in  part  of  speech  —  Possibilities  for 
new  words  —  The  question  of  artificial  languages  — 
Diction. 
V.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION      55 

Grammatical    requirements  —  Rhetorical    require- 
ments —  Securing    clearness  —  Securing    precision  —  Se- 
curing unity. 
VI.  PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ABBREVIATIONS,  AND  SYMBOLS      69 

The  importance  of  punctuation  —  The  common  uses 
of  the  marks  of  punctuation  —  Special  uses  in  technical 
writing  —  Punctuation  in  headings  —  The  use  of  ab- 
breviations —  Suggested  rules  for  standardization  of 
abbreviations  —  Changes  of  form  —  The  use  of  symbols 
—  Correction  of  proof. 

50009; 


vi  CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

VII.  THE  METHODS  OF  ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL  .      93 

Analysis  as  a  method  of  exposition — The  kinds  of 
written  material  to  be  studied — The  translation — The 
paraphrase — The  summary — The  review — The  outline 
— The  brief — Preparing  for  one's  own  writing — The 
question  of  order — Paragraphing — The  importance  of 
the  opening  sentence. 

VIII.  EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION m 

The  significance  of  speech — Speech  a  means  of  in- 
struction— Speech  for  a  technical  man — The  prepara- 
tion of  a  speech — Adaptation — Organization — Presen- 
tation. 

IX.  THE  BUSINESS  LETTER 125 

The  business  letter  type — The  point  of  view — The 
form  of  the  letter — Types  of  business  letters — Dicta- 
tion— The  spirit  of  the  letter — The  filing  of  letters. 

X.  JOURNALISTIC  EXPOSITION — THE  NEWSPAPER  .    .    .     147 

Kinds    of    periodicals — Journalism — The    contents 
of  the  newspaper — The  news  item — The  editorial — 
The  work  of  editing — Journalism  and  the  technical 
man. 
XI.  JOURNALISTIC  EXPOSITION — THE  MAGAZINE     .    .    .     160 

Magazine  and  newspaper — Kinds  of  technical  peri- 
odicals— The  popular  magazine — The  scientific  peri- 
odical— The  trade  journal — Short  forms  of  periodical 
writing. 
XII.  ADVERTISING  AS  A  METHOD  OF  EXPOSITION    .    .    .     168 

Advertising  and  the  technical  writer — Definition  of 
advertising — Kinds  of  advertisements — Psychological 
principles — The  construction  of  an  advertisement — 
The  qualities  of  a  good  advertisement. 

XIII.  TECHNICAL  REPORTS 181 

Definition — Types  of  reports — The  qualities  of  re- 
ports— The  organization  of  a  report — Forms  of  reports 
— Readers  of  public  reports. 

XIV.  SPECIFICATIONS  AND  CONTRACTS 198 

Definitions — Users  of  specifications — Qualities  of 
specifications — Contracts — The  form. 

XV.  ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION 206 

Definition — Statistics — Cuts — Charts — Statements 
— Appendices — Other  helps  in  books— Bibliographies — 
The  use  of  a  library— Reference  works. 
INDEX   ....,..,,,..,.    ,    .    ,    229 


PREFACE 

THE  study  of  English  at  a  scientific  school  has 
a  more  directly  professional  application  than  it 
has  at  an  academic  college.  Instead  of  courses 
in  literature  with  their  cultural  purposes,  courses 
are  given  that  prepare  the  students  for  the  types 
of  reading  and  writing  that  will  be  required  of  them 
after  they  are  graduated  from  college.  Most  of 
the  students  have  definitely  chosen  their  life  work 
and  have  the  right  to  expect  their  college  courses 
to  be  shaped  toward  equipping  them  for  that  work. 
English,  however,  is  more  than  a  tool,  it  is  a  part 
of  life  itself  in  all  its  many  activities.  The  task 
of  the  Department  of  English  is  to  train  the  stu- 
dents to  use  the  language  effectively  as  a  tool  and 
also  to  lead  them  by  means  of  that  instruction 
into  the  larger  field  of  literary  appreciation  and 
culture. 

This  textbook  is  prepared  to  cover  the  more 
practical  aspects  of  the  instruction  in  English 
which  follow  the  ground  work  in  composition  and 
rhetoric  and  is  designed  for  a  single  semester's 
course.  It  has  grown  out  of  the  courses  at  Case 


viii  PREFACE 

School  of  Applied  Science  in  the  last  ten  years. 
During  that  time  no  textbook  has  been  found  en- 
tirely satisfactory  for  the  whole  semester,  although 
several  different  ones  have  been  used  for  a  few 
weeks  at  a  time.  The  most  effective  work  has 
been  done  by  using  current  periodicals  and  giving 
class  instruction  from  the  desk.  A  variety  of 
magazines  have  been  used,  sometimes  one  for  the 
entire  semester,  and  sometimes  three  or  four  dif- 
ferent ones  for  a  week  or  more  each.  It  is  well  to 
have  some  periodical  available  from  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  semester's  work.  The  textbook  is 
intended  to  be  used  with  the  periodical,  and  there- 
fore gives  little  material  for  use;  it  gives  the  theory 
and  leaves  the  practical  forms  to  be  found  fresh 
for  every  class.  Upon  the  basis  of  three  hours  of 
class  work  a  week,  as  at  Case,  the  textbook  can 
be  used  one  hour  and  the  magazine  the  other  two. 
Dictionary  practice,  original  investigation,  and 
theme  writing  furnish  many  possibilities. 

I  wish  to  make  acknowledgments  to  my  pred- 
ecessor, Dr.  J.  Martin  Telleen,  who  first  shaped 
up  the  course  at  Case,  and  to  my  colleagues,  Arthur 
Mochel  and  George  H.  Bost,  who  have  made  many 
helpful  suggestions  both  as  to  the  content  of  the 
course  and  the  method  of  presentation. 

K.  O.  THOMPSON. 


TECHNICAL    EXPOSITION 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE    EXPOSITORY   METHOD 

The  Types  of  Writing.  All  writing  is  divided  into 
four  types.  The  boundaries  between  them  are  not 
so  sharply  drawn  as  were  those  of  the  traditional 
three  parts  of  Gaul,  but  they  are  sufficiently  clear 
to  separate  the  kinds  of  written  composition  for 
the  purposes  of  analysis.  Every  piece  of  writing 
can  be  classified  under  some  one  of  these  four 
types,  although  detached  sentences  and  bits  of 
humor  are  not  always  readily  placed.  To  the  four 
types  are  given  the  names:  narration,  description, 
argumentation,  and  exposition.  In  this  book  we 
shall  be  concerned  with  only  the  last-named;  but 
in  order  to  gain  a  background  for  our  study  that 
will  help  us  understand  the  various  applications  of 
exposition,  we  shall  first  review  the  distinctive 
characteristics  and  purposes  of  all  four  types  of 
writing. 

Narration*    Narration  is  the  type  of  writing  that 


2  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

relates  in  a  definite  order  a  happening  or  a  series 
of  happenings.  The  happenings  may  be  real  or  may 
be  fictitious;  the  most  important  characteristic  of 
narration  is  the  presence  of  an  orderly  develop- 
ment— a  thread  of  connection  running  through 
the  material.  A  chronological  order  is  the  most 
common,  but  may  be  varied  by  a  climactic  order 
for  purposes  of  emphasis,  and  in  some  recent  books 
of  history  has  been  reversed  in  order  to  bring  out 
the  influence  of  causes.  In  any  case,  the  plan  of 
procedure  adapted  to  the  subject  matter  or  to  the 
purpose  of  the  author  is  the  main  element.  Exam- 
ples of  narration  in  literature  include:  the  novel, 
the  short  story,  the  ballad,  the  epic  poem,  drama, 
biography,  and  history.  The  handling  of  narra- 
tive material  offers  a  varied  field  for  the  person- 
ality of  the  writer  to  enter  in  direct  ways — e.g., 
the  partisan  opinion  of  a  historian,  the  prejudice 
of  a  biographer,  the  imagination  of  a  poet  or 
dramatist.  Effective  narration,  however,  is  true  to 
the  spirit  of  the  setting  in  any  account,  historical  or 
fictitious.  From  one  point  of  view  this  type  is  the 
most  elemental  of  the  four,  for  it  implies  the 
attempt  to  tell  another  person  what  has  taken 
place.  The  subject  matter  is  a  particular  event,  or 
period,  or  person;  narration  is  not  concerned  with 
things  in  general,  but  deals  with  something  that  is 
quite  definite  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  It  requires 
ability  first  to  select  the  items  that  will  sustain 


THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD  3 

the  interest  of  the  readers,  and  then  to  organize 
that  material  skillfully.  The  art  of  narration  is 
that  of  the  teller  of  stories  of  human  experience — 
an  art  that  has  been  rightly  considered  one  of  the 
most  effective  abilities  of  mankind. 

Description.  Description  is  the  type  of  writing 
that  portrays  by  means  of  language  any  natural  or 
imagined  object.  To  some  extent  description  is 
involved  in  narration,  for  a  writer  must  be  able  to 
visualize  the  scene  or  the  persons  involved  in  an 
event,  in  order  to  set  forth  the  action  that  takes 
place.  Action  has  a  background;  description  pre- 
sents that  background.  The  personal  element  is 
somewhat  more  subordinated  than  it  is  in  narra- 
tion, in  order  to  increase  the  appeal  that  lies  in  the 
object  itself.  Accuracy  of  observation,  careful 
selection  of  details,  and  acquaintance  with  the 
subtleties  of  a  varied  vocabulary  are  essentials  for 
a  writer  of  description.  From  one  point  of  view  this 
type  is  the  most  elemental  of  the  four,  for  it  implies 
the  attempt  to  tell  another  person  what  one  sees. 
Whether  primitive  man  first  wanted  to  tell  what  he 
saw  or  what  he  experienced  is  a  disputed  point, 
since  the  two  are  closely  related.  The  outstanding 
examples  of  description  are:  lyric  poetry,  books  of 
travel,  nature-study  essays,  and  informative  trea- 
tises. These  require,  not  organizing  ability  so 
much  as  sensitiveness  to  details  and  an  emotional 
reaction.  The  writer  of  description  must  make 


4  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION* 

others  see  with  considerable  vividness  what  he 
himself  has  seen  with  his  physical  eyes  or  in  his 
fancy. 

Argumentation.  Argumentation  is  the  type  of 
writing  that  marshals  evidence  toward  securing 
an  acceptance  of  a  particular  opinion.  The  de- 
cision sought  will  in  most  cases  involve  some  action 
as  well  as  intellectual  assent.  The  contention  may 
be  limited  to  one  side  of  a  question,  but  generally 
it  attempts  to  refute  opposing  ideas  as  well  as  to 
support  one  chosen  side.  Keen  discrimination  of 
thought  and  some  forcefulness  in  presenting  ideas 
are  required  in  him  who  would  write  argumenta- 
tion. His  mind  must  work  logically.  The  skill  of 
a  general,  who  not  only  must  enlist  his  army  units, 
but  must  place  each  one  to  the  greatest  advantage 
with  his  other  units,  must  be  applied  to  the  gather- 
ing and  the  presentation  of  facts  in  argumentation. 
The  writer  of  argumentation  must  range  the  whole 
field  of  knowledge  for  material  and  must  bring  his 
findings  to  bear  with  telling  effect  upon  the  opinions 
of  those  whom  he  opposes  and  would  win  over  to 
his  side.  An  emotional  or  persuasive  element  is 
often  present,  but  the  primary  appeal  is  to  the 
intellect.  As  one  student  put  it:  "Argumentation 
excites  our  sense  of  logic" — a  faculty,  however, 
that  is  not  easily  excited  in  many  people.  The 
ability  to  think  is  required  by  the  writer  and  by 
the  reader  of  this  type,  no  less  by  the  one  than  by 


THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD  5 

the  other.  The  great  examples  in  literature  are: 
forensics,  orations,  and  speeches  in  behalf  of  some 
cause. 

Exposition.  Exposition  is  the  type  of  writing 
that  explains  a  process  or  an  object  in  order  to 
bring  out  underlying  principles.  It  concerns  itself 
with  an  accurate  and  clear  presentation  of  prin- 
ciples as  contrasted  with  appearances.  It  is,  there- 
fore, general  rather  than  particular,  broad  rather 
than  specific.  The  subject  may  be  a  single  machine, 
a  definite  process,  or  just  one  idea,  but  the  author 
brings  out  the  aspects  that  are  typical  of  all  similar 
machines,  processes,  or  ideas.  He  discusses  laws 
and  principles.  In  doing  this  he  must  include  a 
description  of  the  appearance  of  the  parts,  and 
must,  therefore,  have  the  power  of  observation  that 
was  stated  as  essential  in  the  writer  of  description ; 
but  he  is  describing  for  the  sake  of  explaining,  rather 
than  for  the  mental  picture  of  the  object  itself  that 
he  is  handling.  The  discussion  of  principles  often 
involves  the  preference  of  one  explanation  over 
against  another;  the  writer  of  exposition  must  have, 
therefore,  the  skill  in  presentation  of  evidence  that 
was  stated  as  necessary  to  the  writer  of  argumenta- 
tion. The  exposition  of  a  process  may  require  the 
relation  of  a  series  of  happenings;  the  writer  of 
exposition,  therefore,  must  have  the  ability  to  or- 
ganize material,  that  was  associated  with  the  writer 
of  narration.  Exposition,  then,  overlaps  the  three 

2 


6  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

other  types  of  writing;  it  frequently  uses  the  other 
types  in  order  to  bring  out  with  the  highest  effec- 
tiveness the  explanation  that  it  seeks  to  make. 
This  type  is  frequently  put  before  the  others  for 
study  because  of  the  many  occasions  in  daily  life 
for  explaining  something.  The  questions  of  the 
child,  the  natural  curiosity  of  the  growing  mind, 
the  constantly  occurring  problems  of  life — all  give 
it  first  place  psychologically,  if  not  chronologically. 
The  best  examples  in  literature  are:  essays,  trea- 
tises, textbooks  (except  histories  and  anthologies), 
guidebooks,  critical  discussions,  and  handbooks. 

The  Importance  of  Exposition.  The  importance 
of  any  one  of  the  four  types  of  writing  is  entirely  a 
relative  matter;  it  depends  upon  the  purpose  to  be 
served.  The  circumstances  of  life  require  them  all 
and  early  brought  them  all  into  existence.  They 
have  developed  together  in  varying  degrees  of 
effectiveness  and  seldom  in  wholly  pure  forms. 
The  dependence  of  exposition  upon  the  other  types, 
as  set  forth  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  is  an  indi- 
cation of  what  might  be  said  in  a  discussion  of 
any  one  of  the  other  types  concerning  its  composite 
tendencies.  The  best  writings  of  literature  show 
combinations  of  types  of  writing  and  yet  may  be 
classed  as  one  or  another  according  to  prevailing 
purposes  or  predominant  characteristics.  Some 
textbooks  use  compound  names  to  supplement  the 
list  of  the  four  main  types — e.  g.,  expository- 


THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD  7 

narration,  descriptive-narration,  etc.;  but  if  we 
recognize  that  the  types  are  distinguished  primarily 
for  the  purposes  of  analysis,  we  need  not  resort  to 
such  an  expedient.  Rather  we  will  ask  about  the 
chief  purpose  to  be  accomplished,  and  which  of 
the  four  types  of  writing  will  fit  the  best. 

If  our  answer  is  exposition,  then  we  want  to  go 
farther  and  ask  ourselves  such  questions  as :  What 
are  the  essential  characteristics  of  exposition?  Under 
what  circumstances  should  exposition  be  used? 
and  What  are  the  methods  by  which  exposition 
proceeds  ? 

Exposition  is  important  because  its  function  is 
closely  related  to  the  expansion  of  the  material 
basis  of  our  civilization  and  comes  into  our  every- 
day necessity  of  answering  the  questions  Why? 
and  How?  Its  development  as  a  distinct  form  oc- 
curred perhaps  later  than  that  of  the  others,  or 
at  least  was  more  gradual;  recently,  with  the  in- 
crease in  scientific  pursuits,  it  has  assumed  a  new 
significance.  For  the  technical  man — the  scientist, 
the  agriculturist,  the  engineer — exposition  is  the 
most  immediately  important  of  the  four  types  of 
writing,  for  the  technical  man  must  instruct  rather 
than  entertain,  must  interpret  principles  and  proc- 
esses rather  than  characters  and  actions. 

Exposition  and  Argumentation.  Before  passing 
to  the  essential  characteristics  of  exposition,  we 
shall  do  well  to  point  out  the  inherent  connection 


8  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

of  exposition  with  the  reasoning  process,  and  the 
necessity  for  a  writer  of  exposition  to  follow  the 
logical  working  out  of  his  thoughts,  whether  in 
their  casual  connection  or  in  their  use  as  evidence 
supporting  a  contention.  As  already  indicated  the 
two  types  overlap;  argumentation  must  lay  a 
foundation  in  exposition  before  the  terms  em- 
ployed can  be  presented  intelligibly  or  forcefully, 
and  exposition  must  proceed  in  a  strictly  logical 
manner  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the 
fundamental  to  the  subordinate.  In  this  interde- 
pendence it  is  important  that  the  student  under- 
stand what  a  syllogism  is,  how  inferences  are  drawn 
from  other  statements  of  fact,  and  what  the  more 
common  types  of  fallacies  in  reasoning  are.  The 
study  of  these  matters  belongs  to  a  detailed  study 
of  argumentation  rather  than  of  exposition,  but 
should  be  a  part  of  the  training  of  every  person 
that  expects  to  write  technical  exposition.  The 
ability  to  think  straight  is  certainly  requisite  in  a 
scientist. 

The  Essential  Characteristics  of  Exposition.  The 
function  of  presenting  information  in  answer  to  the 
thousand  and  one  questions  of  the  human  mind, 
and  adequately  interpreting  that  knowledge  to  suit 
the  needs  of  varying  intellects,  affords  an  attractive 
field  of  study.  Exposition  will  demand  certain 
qualities  in  itself  if  it  is  to  be  effective.  Without 
at  all  implying  that  the  characteristics  essential  to 


THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD  9 

exposition  are  not  found  also  in  the  other  types  of 
writing,  we  name  three  which  are  vital:  clearness, 
accuracy,  and  unity. 

An  explanation  that  does  not  make  itself  clear 
is  no  explanation  at  all.  Literally,  exposition  is  a 
setting  forth  (from  the  Latin  prefix  ex,  out  of, 
or  away  from ;  and  the  verb  ponere,  to  place,  to  put) ; 
the  word  implies,  therefore,  that  the  meaning  of 
the  subject  matter  is  made  to  stand  out  more  dis- 
tinctly, is  simplified  because  it  is  no  longer  involved 
with  anything  else  and  is  seen  more  clearly.  An 
interpretation  must  succeed  in  making  the  subject 
matter  better  understood  than  it  was  before  the 
interpretation  was  started.  A  writer  of  exposition 
must  cultivate  clearness  of  expression  above  all  other 
qualities.  He  must  be  able  to  convey  to  a  reader 
an  idea  in  such  a  manner  that  the  reader  will  have 
a  perfectly  intelligible  and  satisfactory  under- 
standing of  the  thought.  The  quality  of  clearness 
is  closely  related  to  another  essential,  to  which  we 
now  turn. 

The  second  characteristic  is  accuracy,  which  is 
involved  in  any  attempt  to  secure  clearness.  Not 
infrequently  a  lack  of  clearness  in  expression  is 
due  to  an  incomplete  grasp  of  the  facts  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer.  Accuracy  has  a  twofold  application — 
the  truth  of  the  information,  and  the  precision  of 
the  expression  considered  as  English  composition. 
The  latter  is  the  application  that  we  have  in  mind 


io  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

here,  for  there  are  no  rules  to  be  formulated  whereby 
a  person  can  always  get  the  facts  in  his  investiga- 
tion. The  human  factor  makes  error  liable.  But 
in  the  phrasing  of  thought  it  is  different.  A  loose 
or  intricate  sentence  organization  often  defeats  the 
real  purpose  of  the  thought  that  in  itself  is  good. 

Language  is  in  reality  a  tool  that  requires  skill 
to  use  it  effectively;  scientists  do  not  tolerate  care- 
less or  inaccurate  use  of  their  instruments  and 
should  therefore  learn  the  right  use  of  language, 
which  may  be  considered  another  instrument  of 
precision.  Grammatical  accuracy  is  not  enough; 
precision  of  thought  put  in  words  is  more  than 
correct  grammar.  The  ability  to  phrase  nice  dis- 
tinctions of  thought  and  exact  shades  of  meaning 
is  an  essential  characteristic  of  the  writer  of 
exposition. 

The  third  quality  of  exposition,  unity,  means 
singleness  of  aim  in  subject  matter  and  in  treatment. 
Technical  writing  is  direct,  concise,  plain,  and 
definite.  It  does  not  deviate  from  the  point  in 
hand.  Any  initial  interest  due  to  the  subject  matter 
must  not  be  lost  by  discursive  or  superficial  treat- 
ment. Exposition  must  aim  to  keep  to  the  topic 
strictly,  for  any  digression  to  other  fields,  no  matter 
how  attractive  they  may  be  in  themselves,  tends  to 
confuse  the  impression  in  the  reader's  mind.  The 
style  of  writing  should  be  clear-cut  as  well  as  clear. 
Unity  includes  this  straight-away  method  of  handling 


THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD          n 

a  topic,  as  well  as  all  that  is  usually  presented  in 
rhetorics  under  this  heading  as  one  of  the  three 
central  principles  of  that  subject. 

The  Forms  of  Exposition.  Certain  examples  of 
exposition  have  already  been  mentioned.  With 
some  of  them  we  shall  not  concern  ourselves;  with 
others  we  shall  present  the  problems  that  are  in- 
volved, in  considerable  detail.  Guidebooks  and 
handbooks,  for  example,  are  limited  in  scope  and 
in  form;  they  serve  as  convenient  reference  books, 
but  are  not  usually  read  continuously  from  begin- 
ning to  end.  Textbooks  are  merely  mentioned  as 
exemplifying  exposition;  their  preparation  is  not 
often  taken  up  without  a  background  of  experience 
in  the  subject  covered  and  therefore  may  well  serve 
as  a  goal  rather  than  as  a  practical  model  for  the 
student.  The  essay,  involving  several  literary  and 
critical  forms,  really  constitutes  a  field  by  itself. 
We  have  left:  business  letters,  magazine  articles, 
some  forms  of  journalistic  writing,  reports,  and 
specifications — the  forms  of  practical  technical  writ- 
ing such  as  men  will  be  called  upon  to  prepare  in  the 
course  of  their  regular  professional  or  business 
careers.  The  principles  of  exposition  will  be  applied 
to  the  elements  of  these  forms  of  writing.  The 
writer  of  exposition  must  know  the  difference  be- 
tween giving  directions  in  writing,  and  making  an 
explanation. 

The  Methods  of  Exposition.     The  four  types  of 


12  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

writing  have  their  special  problems;  these  are 
worked  out  by  appropriate  methods.  The  story- 
teller, the  poet,  the  advocate,  and  the  engineer 
each  develops  his  method  of  procedure.  For  all, 
however,  there  is  but  one  language;  all  must  obey 
the  same  rules  of  grammar  and  must  apply  the 
same  principles  of  rhetoric.  That  common  funda- 
mental medium  must  not  be  forgotten.  The 
methods  that  are  referred  to  are  the  ways  by  which 
that  medium  is  made  effective  to  accomplish  cer- 
tain definite  ends.  Differences  come  in  the  vocabu- 
laries, the  processes  of  organization  of  material, 
and  the  needs  of  the  classes  of  readers  to  be  reached. 
Exposition  as  a  whole,  and  the  forms  mentioned  in 
particular,  have  their  problems  of  diction  or  the 
use  of  words.  It  has  also  its  problems  of  order  that 
are  just  as  significant  as  the  building  up  of  proof 
by  the  use  of  evidence  in  argumentation,  or  the 
construction  of  the  plot  of  a  novel  or  of  a  play. 
There  is,  further,  a  distinct  objective  for  the  writer 
of  technical  English,  because  of  the  somewhat 
limited,  professional  class  of  readers  he  has  in  mind. 

The  broad  directions  about  visualizing  the  reader, 
selecting  the  material,  and  consulting  the  sources; 
the  use  of  rhetorical  devices  of  transition,  propor- 
tion, and  emphasis ;  and  of  course  the  strict  observ- 
ance of  grammatical  requirements — all  hold  in  ex- 
pository writing. 

But  exposition  commonly  proceeds  according  to 


THE  EXPOSITORY  METHOD          13 

two  main  methods:  the  method  of  definition,  and 
the  method  of  analysis.  These  two  will  underlie 
the  remainder  of  our  discussion  of  the  application 
of  exposition  to  various  forms  of  technical  writing. 
The  method  of  definition  is  explained  and  illustrated 
in  Chapters  II  to  VI;  the  method  of  analysis  in 
Chapters  VII  to  XV.  Definition  is  concerned  with 
the  meanings  of  words  and  expressions;  analysis  is 
concerned  with  the  organization  of  whole  articles. 
The  use  of  the  right  word  at  the  right  time  and  the 
construction  of  sentences  with  a  unified  thought 
are  the  problems  of  the  method  of  definition.  The 
arrangement  of  thoughts  to  accomplish  a  definite 
end,  especially  as  these  thoughts  are  considered 
in  their  larger  aspects  of  co-ordination  and  adapta- 
tion, is  the  problem  of  the  method  of  analysis. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  I 

1.  Clip  from  a  newspaper  an  example  of  each  type  of  writing. 

2.  Name  five  books  that  are  examples  of  narration;  of  descrip- 
tion; of  argumentation;  of  exposition. 

3.  Formulate  characteristics  essential  to  narration;  to  de- 
scription; to  argumentation. 

4.  Report  on  the  origin  and  history  of  the  essay. 

5.  Name  five  famous  essayists  and  writings  by  each. 

6.  Clip  several  extracts  from  a  magazine  or  newspaper  with- 
out titles;  formulate  titles  for  extracts  exchanged  with 
other  pupils. 

7.  Discuss  the  following  definitions  of  the  types  of  writing: 

a.  Narration  is  a  record  of  events. 

b.  Description  is  an  attempt  to  make  some  one  else  see 
or  imagine  a  thing  as  you  see  or  think  of  it. 


i4  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

c.  Description  is  giving  the  attributes  of  any  object  or 
conception. 

d.  Description  is  an  account  of  the  parts  of  a  complex 
whole. 

e.  Description  is  a  portrayal  by  language. 

f .  Argumentation  is  the  ability  to  make  people  think  and 
feel  as  the  speaker  thinks  and  feels. 

g.  Argumentation  is  the  effort  to  make  others  believe  as 
you  would  like  to  have  them. 

h.  Argumentation  is  the  art  of  persuading  by  logical  rea- 
soning. 

i.   Exposition  is  that  form  of  discourse  which  has  for  its 
aim  the  unfolding  of  a  subject. 

j.  Exposition  is  the  overcoming  of  some  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  understanding  an  idea.  % 

k.  Exposition  is  the  succinct  and  orderly  setting  forth  of 
some  piece  of  knowledge. 

1.   Exposition  is  that  form  of  discourse  which  proposes  to 
make  clear  to  the  intellect  an  idea  or  related  group  of 
ideas. 
8.   Write  four  themes  on  the  same  subject,  illustrating  the  four 

types  of  writing.    Suggested  subjects:   A  Football  Game, 

A  Ford  Automobile,  An  Heirloom,  My  Bicycle. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

J.  F.  Genung:  The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric. 
R.  A.  Jelliffe:  Handbook  of  Exposition. 


CHAPTER  II 

DEFINITIONS   OF   WORDS 

Application  of  Exposition  to  Words.  In  all  types 
of  writing  words  should  be  used  with  correct  mean- 
ings, but  in  exposition  there  is  more  occasion  to 
use  new  words,  or  words  with  special  meanings, 
than  there  usually  is  in  the  other  types.  At  least 
there  is  need  to  give  the  definition  of  words  used, 
when  there  is  any  uncertainty  about  the  sense  in- 
volved. The  language  of  science  is  exact.  The 
terms  of  science  are  more  nearly  univocal  than  the 
terms  of  history,  politics,  education,  philosophy, 
social  life,  etc.,  and  yet  there  is  constant  need  for 
watchfulness  against  misinterpretation.  For  ex- 
ample, words  like  state,  democracy,  school,  wisdom, 
truth,  home,  gentleman,  even  when  taken  with  a 
context,  are  given  different  interpretations  by  dif- 
ferent people.  On  the  other  hand,  scientific  terms, 
such  as  geology,  crystal,  cell,  root,  spectrum,  volt- 
age, transit,  and  sun,  do  not  give  rise  to  varieties 
of  interpretation.  The  meanings  are  more  distinct. 
The  writer  of  exposition,  therefore,  in  order  to 


16  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

secure  precision  or  accuracy,  which  is  an  essential 
quality  in  his  writing,  must  be  sure  of  his  meanings, 
and  must  know  how  to  give  exact  definitions  if 
there  is  any  possibility  that  his  readers  may  not 
follow  his  thought  easily.  He  must  know  about  the 
sources  of  our  technical  words,  and  the  methods 
of  building  up  new  terms  to  meet  some  real  need 
in  vocabulary.  In  this  chapter  we  will  take  up 
the  framing  of  definitions. 

The  Process  of  Definition.  Definition  is  the  proc- 
ess of  separating  out  the  thing  being  defined  from 
all  else,  especially  from  anything  that  might  be 
confused  with  it.  Limits  to  the  scope  of  the  meaning 
of  the  word  being  defined  are  established  with  ex- 
actness. The  process  is  analogous  to  the  exercise, 
in  geography,  of  bounding  a  country  or  a  state.  The 
content  or  range  of  a  word  is  fixed  by  its  definition. 
We  are  undertaking  here  the  interesting  task  of 
applying  the  process  of  definition  to  the  word 
definition  itself.  We  shall  have  further  help  in 
understanding  the  meaning  of  the  word  if  we  look 
at  its  origin.  The  root  of  the  word  is  the  Latin 
finis,  which  is  translated  boundary,  border,  or  end. 
The  process  is,  therefore,  to  establish  boundaries 
for  the  thought  content  of  a  word  or  term. 

Ideas  are  almost  always  conveyed  from  one  per- 
son to  another  by  means  of  words ;  the  exceptions  of 
sign  language  and  facial  or  other  physical  expres- 
sion need  not  be  considered.  Sometimes  ideas  are 


DEFINITIONS  OF  WORDS  17 

vague  in  a  person's  mind,  and  when  expressed  in 
words  lead  to  misunderstandings  and  disputes. 
Sometimes  ideas  are  abstract  or  subtle,  and  when 
put  into  words  are  hard  to  grasp.  Before  a  subject 
is  discussed  the  terms  employed  in  that  subject 
must  be  so  presented  that  all  who  read  will  obtain 
from  them  the  same  meanings  that  the  author  does. 
The  truth  of  a  discussion  will  depend  upon  the 
definitions  adopted;  the  definitions  are  but  con- 
densations of  the  truth  of  the  thought.  The  mean- 
ings of  all  terms  that  are  vital  to  the  thought  must 
be  stated. 

Kinds  of  Definitions.  There  have  been  several 
attempts  made  to  classify  definitions;  the  most 
satisfactory  is  undoubtedly  the  one  that  distin- 
guishes but  two :  the  formal  and  the  informal.  An 
informal  definition  is  one  that  describes  the  term 
in  a  broad,  human,  or  even  popular  way.  A  formal 
definition  is  one  that  follows  a  set  method  of  stating 
the  class  to  which  the  thing  being  defined  belongs, 
and  the  essential  characteristics  which  distinguish 
it  from  other  members  of  that  class.  The  formal 
definition  is  also  called  a  logical  definition,  in  which 
case  the  two  parts  are  said  to  give  the  genus  and 
the  differentia  of  the  object  defined.  These  two 
Latin  words,  taken  from  the  vocabulary  of  logic, 
indicate  the  including  class,  and  special  points 
found  in  the  particular  member  being  defined  but 
not  in  other  members  of  the  class.  The  informal 


i8 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


and  formal  definitions  may  be  illustrated  by  using 
the  same  word.  A  propeller  may  be  defined 
informally  by  saying  that  it  is  similar  to  the  fan 
of  a  windmill,  except  that  its  motion  causes  the 
supporting  body  to  move  through  the  air.  A  formal 
definition  would  be:  a  propeller  is  a  bladed  screw 
whose  revolutions  against  air  or  water  impart  mo- 
tion to  a  supporting  body.  In  the  former,  we  have 
a  description  in  a  comparison  with  a  familiar  object; 
in  the  latter  we  have  the  class  of  bladed  screws 
named,  and  some  qualities  which  will  distinguish 
propellers  from  other  screws,  such  as  grooved 
screws,  or  more  exactly  from  other  bladed  screws 
such  as  those  which  simply  give  motion  to  air  or 
water,  for  example,  a  revolving  fan. 

The  following  tabulated  arrangement  will  furnish 
the  essential  material  for  formal  definitions: 


WORD  CLASS  (genus) 

helmet  covering  for  the  head 

league  alliance 

mullion  bar 

thermometer  instrument 


CHARACTERISTICS 
(di/erentia) 

defensive,  hard. 

two  or  more  nations  or 
parties,  support, 
help. 

dividing  the  lights  of 
windows,  slender. 

measure  for  tempera- 
ture. 


Dictionary  definitions,  particularly  those  of  nouns, 
are  formal  in  kind,  although  frequently  they  are 


DEFINITIONS  OF  WORDS  19 

open  to  other  objections  which  will  be  noted  later 
in  the  chapter.  Definitions  in  technical  writing 
should  preferably  be  formal  definitions. 

Methods  of  Definition.  In  phrasing  definitions, 
whether  formal  or  informal,  a  writer  may  use  any 
one  of  several  methods.  These  represent  points  of 
view  or  angles  of  approach  on  the  part  of  the 
framer  of  the  definition.  Sometimes  it  is  helpful  to 
use  several  in  connection  with  the  same  word. 
Possible  methods  and  examples  of  each  are  as  fol- 
lows: (i)  By  looking  up  the  derivation  of  the  word 
one  may  incorporate  the  original  or  inherent  mean- 
ing of  the  word  or  of  its  parts.  A  great  many 
scientific  words  come  from  the  classical  languages — 
e.  g.,  planet,  inertia,  geology,  machine,  telephone, 
and  metabolism.  Frequently  it  is  illuminating  to 
learn  the  source  of  such  words.  Inertia,  for  ex- 
ample, is  composed  of  a  negative  prefix  and  the 
Latin  word  for  art,  skill,  or  power;  geology  of  the 
Greek  words  for  earth  and  history  or  record;  and 
so  on  with  a  long  list  of  words,  many  of  which  are 
exceedingly  interesting.  (2)  By  quoting  some  ex- 
pert who  has  framed  a  carefully  worded  definition 
in  a  discussion  of  the  subject  in  question.  This 
method  is  followed  by  dictionaries,  as  for  example, 
Webster's  New  International,  under  the  entry  "riot, " 
used  as  a  law  term,  quotes  from  Hawkins,  a  noted 
English  jurist,  and  then  cites  two  or  three  passages 
that  employ  the  term  in  its  common  meanings. 


20  TECHNICAL' EXPOSITION 

(3)  By  stating  a  meaning  negatively,  or  telling 
what  the  term  does  not  mean.  The  negative  ap- 
proach eliminates  some  meanings  or  classifications 
which  do  not  apply  to  the  term  being  discussed. 
Usually,  of  course,  meanings  that  might  possibly 
become  confused  with  the  term  being  defined, 
either  by  similarity  of  connotation,  or  through 
incomplete  knowledge,  are  the  ones  that  have  to 
be  ruled  out.  In  his  speech  on  Conciliation  with 
the  American  Colonies,  Edmund  Burke  suggests 
that  the  peace  he  proposes  as  a  remedy  is 

not  peace  through  the  medium  of  war;  not  peace  to  be  hunted 
through  the  labyrinth  of  intricate  and  endless  negotiations; 
not  peace  to  arise  out  of  universal  discord,  fomented  from 
principle,  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire;  not  peace  to  depend  on 
the  juridical  determination  of  perplexing  questions,  or  the 
precise  marking  the  shadowy  boundaries  of  a  complex  govern- 
ment. It  is  simple  peace,  sought  in  its  natural  course,  and  in 
its  ordinary  haunts.  It  is  peace  sought  in  the  spirit  of  peace, 
and  laid  in  principles  purely  pacific. 

Very  frequently  ground  can  be  cleared  of  the  under- 
brush of  hazy  or  inadequate  interpretations  before 
the  positive  contribution  is  advanced.  The  method 
of  negation  is  often  helpful.  (4)  By  citing  an  ex- 
ample of  the  application  of  the  term.  As  has  just 
been  stated,  dictionaries  often  cite  quotations  from 
writers  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  a  word;  a 
similar  practice  is  not  unfamiliar  in  the  classroom. 
A  teacher  asks  what  a  three-phase  wiring  system 


DEFINITIONS  OF  WORDS  21 

is;  an  observing  student  points  to  the  system  used 
in  the  building  in  which  the  class  is  sitting,  and 
says,  "That  is  a  three-phase  system."  It  is  not 
strictly  a  definition;  it  does  assist,  however,  in 
furnishing  a  clear  interpretation  of  the  term  in 
question.  (5)  By  making  a  comparison  or  a  contrast 
that  will  bring  out  the  meaning.  Words  frequently 
go  in  pairs  or  groups,  for  example:  hypothesis  and 
theory,  ingredient  and  element,  liquid  and  fluid, 
severe  and  strict.  Definitions  of  the  words  in  these 
pairs  can  best  be  given  by  pointing  out  the  differ- 
ences and  the  similarities  of  the  two  words  as 
related  to  each  other.  If  one  of  the  pair  were 
defined  alone,  there  still  might  be  some  uncertainty 
in  the  minds  of  some  people,  but  if  both  are  dis- 
cusssed  the  uncertainty  will  disappear.  (6)  By 
giving  a  more  or  less  complete  description  of  the 
term.  Some  words  are  so  hard  to  define  logically 
that  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  give  a  concise 
statement  or  description  of  what  the  word  desig- 
nates. The  best  example  of  this  is  the  word  elec- 
tricity, for  which  there  is  no  satisfactory  definition 
of  the  formal  type. 

Loose,  illogical  expressions,  like  "exposition  is 
when  you  explain,"  or  "argument  is  where  you 
take  sides  on  a  question,"  are  of  course  to  be 
avoided. 

Rules  for  a  Definition.     In   addition   to   these 

methods  of  definition  which  set  forth  the  funda- 
3 


22  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

mental  approach  to  a  term  to  be  defined,  there  are 
several  rules  concerning  the  acceptable  form  of  a 
definition,  (i)  In  a  formal  definition  choose  as  a 
class  word  a  term  that  is  neither  too  inclusive  nor 
too  small.  This  is  frequently  done  by  using  an 
adjective  with  a  noun.  A  large  class  increases  the 
number  of  essential  characteristics  that  must  be 
mentioned,  a  small  class  lessens  them.  For  example, 
to  say  that  a  piano  is  an  instrument  is  to  choose  too 
inclusive  a  class  word;  to  say  that  it  is  a  musical 
instrument  is  better,  but  this  is  yet  a  class  word 
that  is  larger  than  necessary;  to  say  that  it  is  a 
stringed  instrument,  or  a  stringed  musical  instru- 
ment, is  to  make  the  second  part  of  the  definition 
shorter  and  clearer  than  it  would  be  otherwise.  On 
the  other  hand,  to  say  that  an  apology  is  an  excuse 
made  by  or  on  behalf  of  a  person  to  explain  conduct 
that  was  open  to  misunderstanding,  and  then  to 
say  that  an  excuse  is  an  apology  made  by  or  on 
behalf  of  a  person  to  explain  a  neglect  of  duty,  is 
to  confuse  the  classification  of  the  two  words.  Both 
words  are  members  of  an  inclusive  class  like  "ac- 
knowledgment" or  "statement."  (2)  Use  only 
simple  and  familiar  words  in  a  definition.  If  one 
has  to  look  up  the  meanings  of  words  used  in  a 
definition,  the  purpose  of  the  definition  is  defeated. 
Samuel  Johnson's  famous  definition  of  "network" 
illustrates  this  abuse:  network  is  "anything  retic- 
ulated or  decussated  at  equal  distances."  Tech- 


DEFINITIONS  OF  WORDS  23 

nical  writers  with  a  known  audience  of  technical 
people  are  allowed,  of  course,  to  adapt  their  lan- 
guage to  the  intellectual  range  of  their  hearers; 
and  dictionaries  may  be  allowed  to  use  large  words 
instead  of  long  explanatory  phrases;  but  writers  of 
textbooks  or  articles  for  general  readers  should 
avoid  the  mistake  of  Johnson.  (3)  Avoid  all 
forms  from  the  same  root.  To  say  that  glauces- 
cent  is  "  having  a  somewhat  glaucous  appear- 
ance" does  not  help  much,  yet  the  dictionary 
so  states.  Use  different  as  well  as  more  familiar 
words.  (4)  Use  positive  expressions  wherever  pos- 
sible. Sometimes  the  most  suitable  explanation  of 
a  term  is  the  negative  one,  although  generally  the 
negative  interpretation  is  less  desirable.  A  positive 
definition  may  be  ambiguous — e.  g.,  to  say  that  a 
bachelor  is  a  single  man;  the  negative  statement 
that  a  bachelor  is  an  unmarried  man,  although  of 
marriageable  age  and  circumstances,  is  at  once 
clearer  and  more  accurate.  Likewise,  the  negative 
explanation  of  negative  words  is  frequently  the 
most  satisfactory — e.  g.,  involuntary,  unnecessary, 
and  such  words  as  rough,  hilly,  and  bitter,  which  are 
negative  in  relation  to  other  commonly  used  words. 
(5)  Be  as  concise  as  is  consistent  with  completeness 
and  clearness.  Wordiness  defeats  the  purpose  of 
definition. 

Synonyms.    Another  form  of  the  process  of  defi- 
nition is  the  employment  of  synonyms,  which  are 


24  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

single  words  or  brief  phrases  conveying  a  meaning 
closely  similar  to  that  of  the  original  word.  In 
strictness  the  use  of  synonyms  is  not  another  method 
of  definition  because  it  assumes  a  knowledge  of  the 
word  that  would  be  often  unwarranted.  In  formal 
definitions  the  substitution  of  synonyms  for  class 
names  has  to  be  guarded  against,  and  in  informal 
definitions  a  synonym  may  be  as  unfamiliar  as 
the  original  word,  and  used  alone  be  insufficient. 
In  some  meaning,  at  least,  a  word  and  its  synonyms 
are  interchangeable  or  parallel.  Very  few,  if  any 
two  words  have  exactly  the  same  meanings  or  are 
precisely  parallel  in  range.  The  real  distinctions 
between  words  are  brought  out  best  by  formal 
definitions,  but  frequently  the  differences  are  made 
sufficiently  clear  for  ordinary  purposes  by  the  use 
of  synonyms.  It  is  the  mark  of  a  good  writer  to 
use  synonymous  expressions  rather  than  to  repeat 
words.  The  larger  the  vocabulary  the  more  suc- 
cessful will  be  the  employment  of  such  substitu- 
tions, and  the  more  likely  will  be  the  intelligent 
grasp  by  the  reader  of  the  meaning  of  the  writer. 
Further,  there  is  a  personal  satisfaction  in  the  con- 
veying of  shades  of  meaning  by  a  skillful  choice  of 
words.  A  writer,  particularly  a  writer  on  technical 
subjects,  should  not  be  content  to  put  down  the 
first  word  that  comes  to  his  mind,  but  should  be 
sure  that  the  idea  he  has  is  exactly  included  in  the 
language  employed. ,  A  book  of  synonyms  should 


DEFINITIONS  OF  WORDS  25 

stand  beside  one's  dictionary  for  easy  reference. 
One  of  the  best  as  well  as  the  most  recent  is  Allen's 
Dictionary  of  Synonyms,  Harper  &  Brothers,  1921. 
Crabb's  English  Synonyms  and  Fernald's  English 
Synonyms,  Antonyms,  and  Prepositions  give  mean- 
ings and  uses  of  words;  Soule's  Dictionary  of 
English  Synonyms  gives  an  extensive  list  of  words 
without  meanings,  but  grouped  according  to  shades 
of  thought  under  each  word  entered,  and  has  a 
complete  cross-index;  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English 
Words  attempts  an  elaborate  classification  of  the 
departments  of  knowledge,  with  all  words  grouped 
by  part  of  speech  and  by  shade  of  meaning,  con- 
cluding with  a  full  cross-index. 

English  is  especially  rich  in  synonymous  expres- 
sions, as  is  shown  by  the  fact,  for  example,  that 
the  Century  Dictionary  gives  more  than  thirty  words 
that  are  in  part  at  least  parallel  in  meaning  with  the 
word  "give."  The  reason  for  the  extensive  variety 
of  words  in  English  is  discussed  in  the  next  chapter, 
which  takes  up  the  sources  of  our  language. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  II 

1.  Frame  definitions  of  your  own  for  the  following  words,  and 
then  compare  with  the  dictionary  definitions: 

hat         shovel  automobile        mine  (noun) 

luck        hunger  grindstone         laboratory 

dirt         profit  farm  justice 

2.  Use  all  the  methods  of  definition  with  the  following  words: 

carpet  magazine  park 

liberty  emotion  virtue 


26  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

3.  Put  down  all  the  synonyms  you  can  think  of,  without 
using  any  dictionary,  for  the  following  words: 

distinct  (adj.)        fix  (verb)  plain  (adj.) 

attractive  (adj.)    mold  (verb)         revolution  (noun) 
attack  (noun)        support  (verb)     wisdom  (noun) 

4.  Distinguish  between  the  following  pairs  of  words: 

divide  and  dissect     road  and  street    power  and  ability 
part  and  portion       sharp  and  keen    machinist  and 

mechanic 

5.  Copy  all  definitions  from  your  current  reading,  and  tell 
whether  they  are  informal  or  formal. 

6.  Comment  on  the  uses  of  the  word  engineer. 

7.  Discuss  the  form  of  the  following  definitions: 
Loyalty  is  not  the  same  as  blind  devotion. 
A  dressmaker  may  be  truly  an  artist. 
Mastery  of  method  is  the  pathway  to  success. 

8.  Criticize  again  the  definitions  in  Exercise  7  of  Chapter  i. 

9.  Turn  to  a  page  of  the  dictionary  at  random,  and  make  a 
list  of  half  a  dozen  words  showing  how  their  definitions 
are  connected  with  their  derivations. 

10.  Find  appropriate  synonyms  for  the  word  "great"  in  the 
following  paragraph,  which  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  mental 
laziness  of  many  writers: 

We  were  greatly  surprised  to  see  so  great  a  crowd  of 
people  assembled,  evidently  for  some  great  occasion.  On 
inquiry  we  learned  that  a  great  man  was  to  address  the 
people  on  a  subject  of  great  interest.  The  great  size  of 
the  field,  which  sloped  like  an  amphitheater,  enabled  the 
great  crowd  to  hear  every  word  with  great  ease,  and  all 
listened  with  great  attention  to  the  great  thoughts 
presented.  (From  Fernald's  Expressive  English.') 

11.  Take  a  paragraph  from  a  magazine  article  and  make  lists 
of  synonyms  for  the  nouns,  then  for  the  adjectives,  then 
for  the  verbs. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

R.  W.  Sellars:  The  Essentials  of  Logic,  chap.  6. 
J.  W.  Taylor:  Elementary  Logic,  chap.  6. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  SOURCES  OP  A  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY 

The  Meaning  of  the  Word  Technical.  The  vocab- 
ulary of  any  branch  of  knowledge  presents  special 
features,  both  of  range  and  of  quality,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  commonness  of  the  subject  in  life  and 
the  historical  sources  of  its  theory  and  practice. 
The  vocabulary  of  a  subject  will  consist  of  the 
words  that  name  the  tools  used,  the  raw  materials, 
the  processes  employed  in  transforming  the  raw 
materials  into  the  finished  product,  the  results  of 
the  processes,  the  uses  of  the  products,  the  quali- 
ties or  characteristics  of  the  whole  or  any  of  the 
parts,  and  any  other  essential  feature  connected 
with  the  work.  A  student  or  a  workman  must 
know  the  vocabulary  of  any  field  to  be  pro- 
ficient in  it.  The  vocabulary  is  in  itself  a  tool 
that  requires  expert  handling.  The  words  of  a 
particular  subject,  such  as  art,  philosophy,  law, 
science  in  general,  or  any  special  science,  are  called 
a  technical  vocabulary.  By  derivation,  the  word 
technical  suggests  something  that  is  made,  pro- 
duced, or  fashioned;  it  is  applied  to  the  ability  or 


28  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

skill  to  make  something.  From  this  it  is  natural 
that  the  word  came  to  be  used  in  the  useful  arts 
and  in  the  sciences,  especially  the  mechanical 
branches.  In  its  broadest  sense  the  word  is  ap- 
plied to  any  trade  or  profession.  The  artist  has  a 
technical  vocabulary,  also  the  lawyer,  the  agricul- 
turist, and  the  engineer. 

The  Importance  of  the  Sources  of  a  Technical 
Vocabulary.  If  the  words  pertaining  to  a  particu- 
lar subject  constitute  a  tool  for  the  follower  of 
that  subject,  they  need  to  be  known  thoroughly 
and  accurately.  This  means  more  than  an  ac- 
quaintance with  their  spelling  and  their  dictionary 
meaning.  It  means  knowing  something  about  the 
geographical  and  the  historical  development  of  the 
subject;  it  means  understanding  something  of  the 
composition  of  languages  and  their  interrelation; 
it  means  appreciating  how  languages  grow.  The 
first  of  these  three  points  varies,  of  course,  with  the 
subject,  and  cannot  be  included  here.  The  second 
of  the  points  will  be  discussed  in  this  chapter, 
and  the  third  in  the  next. 

The  Racial  Contributions.  Without  attempting 
any  discussion  of  the  theory  of  language,  or  of  the 
beginnings  of  tongues,  we  can  gather  together  the 
results  of  the  study  of  scholars  and  the  changes 
of  history  in  showing  what  we  may  call  the  racial 
specialties  in  vocabulary.  No  language  is  seri- 
ously one-sided,  but  the  range  of  human  experience 


SOURCES  OF  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY  29 

appears  in  varying  degrees  in  the  different  tongues. 
Most  peoples  have  made  special  contributions  in 
some  one  or  two  fields  of  thought.  The  life  and 
consequently  the  vocabulary  of  a  people  will  be 
rich  in  certain  elements  and  terms  and  poorer  in 
others.  A  summary  may  be  presented  as  follows, 
with  examples  in  English: 

Latin  — words  of  government,  law,  and  science — e.  g., 

republic,  census,  crime,  mandate,  solid,  rotary. 

Greek  — words  of  art,  science,  and  philosophy — e.  g., 

logic,    geography,    rhetoric,    intone,    cosmos, 
democracy. 

Hebrew  — words  of  religion,  and  imagination — e.  g.,  sab- 
bath, satan,  hallelujah,  jubilee. 

Arabic  — words  of  trade  and  mathematics — e.  g.,  maga- 
zine, syrup,  zenith,  zero,  algebra,  cipher. 

Keltic  — words    of   home   and   folklore — e.    g.,    crock, 

taper,  bargain,  basin,  clan,  brogue,  slogan. 

Anglo-Saxon — words  of  conduct  and  morals — e.  g.,  friend, 
hearty,  hope,  wish,  sorrow,  love,  hate. 

Dutch          — words  of  navigation  and  the  fine  arts — e.g., 
dock,  hull,  yacht,  landscape,  easel. 

German  — words  of  geography,  science,  and  civic  life — e.  g., 
field,  land,  quartz,  zinc,  kaiser. 

Italian  — words  of  the  fine  arts,  natural  science,  and 
philology — e.  g.f  camera,  piano,  stanza,  folio, 
fresco,  lava,  cascade,  volcano,  stucco. 

Spanish  — words  of  adventure  and  discovery — e.  g., 
armada,  filibuster,  desperado,  eldorado. 

French  — words  of  social  life,  law,  and  ceremony — e.  g., 
bouquet,debut,etiquette,program,trousseau. 

The  languages  of  other  prominent  peoples — the 
Russian,   Swedish,   Norwegian,   Danish,   Turkish, 


30  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Hindustani,  Chinese,  and  others — have  not  been 
without  their  influence,  but  have  not  been  so 
definitely  specialized.  They  have  contributed  many 
individual  words.  We  look  at  them  all  from  the 
point  of  view  of  our  English,  for  a  reason  that  will 
be  brought  out  in  the  next  paragraph,  but  there 
has  been  an  interrelation  more  or  less  strong  among 
all  languages.  As  world-wide  communication  has 
developed,  the  people  of  one  country  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  people  of  another,  and  their 
languages  have  been  mutually  influenced,  although 
not  equally.  Racial  vocabularies  have  grown  by  a 
process  of  absorption  of  words  in  part,  with  such 
modifications  in  form  as  language  necessities  re- 
quired. The  tongues  that  have  had  the  largest 
influence  among  existing  languages  are  naturally 
those  that  have  had  the  widest  circulation  through 
national  expansion — viz.,  German,  French,  and  Eng- 
lish among  modern,  and  Greek  and  Latin  among 
ancient  languages.  If  the  political  promise  of  early 
Assyria  or  Byzantium,  or  of  later  Portugal  or  Spain 
had  materialized  permanently,  we  should  undoubt- 
edly find  the  languages  of  these  empires  exerting 
a  larger  influence  than  they  now  have,  or  than  those 
of  their  contemporary  rivals  just  mentioned.  These 
five  widespread  tongues  have  been  the  languages 
of  education,  and  until  the  present  century  the 
classical  languages,  Latin  and  Greek,  have  pre- 
dominated in  educational  importance. 


SOURCES  OF  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY  31 

The  Composite  Nature  of  English.  The  speech  of 
the  English  people  is  probably  the  most  composite 
of  any  tongue  known,  ancient  or  modern;  that  is, 
it  has  in  its  vocabulary  more  words  from  sources 
outside  its  own  racial  inheritance  than  any  other 
language.  Many  races  have  made  contributions  to 
its  language  in  root  words  or  grammatical  forms,  not 
primarily  through  literature  brought  into  England, 
but  chiefly  through  contact  of  people  with  people. 
The  language  is  still  growing  in  the  double  sense  of 
an  expanding  word  list  and  of  an  adoption  by  peoples 
to  whom  it  comes  as  a  foreign  tongue.  Some  of 
the  possibilities  of  such  growth  will  be  pointed  out 
in  the  following  chapter;  the  composite  character 
of  English  is  explained  and  accounted  for  in  this. 

The  historical  influences  that  have  shaped  the 
British  Empire  are  too  complicated  to  evaluate 
in  a  brief  discussion,  but  anyone  who  is  familiar 
with  the  history  of  England  will  recall  that,  begin- 
ning with  the  earliest  historical  period,  the  island 
has  been  invaded  by  several  different  races  from 
the  continent.  These  invading  peoples  came  to 
stay  for  considerable  periods,  in  most  cases  for 
several  centuries  each,  and,  of  course,  left  very 
definite  traces  in  the  language,  such  as  the  place 
names,  words  of  common  domestic  usage,  and 
forms  of  inflection.  Furthermore,  the  English 
people,  since  their  national  existence  became  firmly 
established,  have  been  an  outreaching,  colonizing 


32  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

people.  In  this  way,  the  English  have  come  into 
touch  with  lands  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  from 
the  peoples  of  which  they  have  taken  ideas  that 
are  reflected  in  our  vocabulary.  Some  of  these 
influences  have  been  stronger  than  others,  but 
whatever  the  degree  of  influence,  the  variety  is  an 
outstanding  feature.  No  other  country  has  had 
such  a  mixed  development;  other  lands  have  been 
more  continuously  inhabited  or  controlled  by  a 
single  race.  As  many  as  seven  distinct  racial  con- 
tributions, of  varying  importance  to  be  sure,  are 
found  in  the  language  known  as  the  English  lan- 
guage: Keltic,  Latin,  Anglo-Saxon,  Danish,  Nor- 
man French,  Dutch,  and  German.  Figures  for 
the  percentages  of  these  elements  in  the  vocabulary 
as  at  present  constituted  cannot  be  given  with 
accuracy ;  but  Professor  Kittredge,  in  the  Introduc- 
tion to  Webster's  New  International  Dictionary, 
says  that  about  four-fifths  of  the  vocabulary  goes 
back  to  French  and  Latin  combined;  about  10  per 
cent  may  be  Anglo-Saxon,  4  or  5  per  cent  Greek, 
and  the  rest,  about  5  per  cent,  includes  the  other 
elements,  such  as  Keltic,  Teutonic,  Asiatic,  etc. 
When  one  tests  the  prevalence  of  use,  however,  a 
different  story  must  be  told,  for  a  great  many  of 
the  commonest  words  bearing  upon  everyday  activi- 
ties and  home  life  come  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the 
Keltic,  or  the  Teutonic ;  in  literary  usage,  individual 
authors  show  decided  tendencies — e.  g.,  Shakespeare 


SOURCES  OF  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY  33 

for  Saxon,  Milton  for  Latin,  the  Authorized  Version 
of  the  Bible  for  Saxon  again,  and  scientific  writers 
like  Huxley  for  Latin. 

There  are  many  interesting  studies  in  the  mean- 
ings of  English  words,  not  the  least  of  which  is 
the  comparison  of  practically  synonymous  words 
from  two  sources.  It  will  be  evident  that,  with 
several  sources  for  our  present  speech,  there  will 
be  duplications,  first  of  different  words  for  the 
same  object  or  idea,  and  second  of  similar  words 
for  very  different  objects  or  ideas.  These  facts 
account  for  much  of  the  ambiguity  of  English 
words,  and  also  for  the  richness  of  our  speech  in 
synonymous  expressions.  The  good  results  have 
been  mingled  with  the  unfortunate. 

When  the  Norman  French  became  rulers  of  Eng- 
land, they  brought  a  tongue  that  was  little  known 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  island.  With  educational 
facilities  inadequate  for  teaching  the  new  speech, 
the  people  learned  it  by  its  sound,  rather  than  out 
of  books.  In  order  to  make  meanings  perfectly 
intelligible  to  the  people  in  legal  and  religious 
proceedings,  the  leaders  developed  the  habit  of 
using  parallel  words  to  express  their  thoughts;  in 
this  way  there  grew  up  the  "doubles,"  one  from  the 
French  (or  Latin  originally),  and  the  other  from 
the  Saxon.  The  following  are  examples  (the  Saxon 
word  being  given  first  in  each  instance):  building  and 
edifice,  try  and  endeavor,  fatherly  and  paternal, 


34  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

aid  and  abet,  will  and  testament,  acknowledge  and 
confess,  lowly  and  humble,  love  and  cherish,  work 
and  labor,  promise  and  vow,  loathe  and  despise. 

The  Characteristics  of  American  Speech.  The 
language  influences  in  the  speech  of  the  people  in 
the  United  States  have  been  even  more  numerous 
than  those  in  England.  English  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic  has  all  the  historical  factors  of  insular 
English,  plus  those  of  the  other  European  nations 
that  colonized  here — e.  g.,  Holland  and  Spain;  plus 
those  of  the  American  Indians;  plus  those  of  the 
peoples  admitted  in  large  numbers  by  our  liberal 
immigration  policy  of  the  last  seventy  years.  From 
colonial  times  there  has  been  less  restraint  here 
in  matters  of  purity  of  language,  and  less  insistence 
upon  the  inflected  forms  of  the  past.  The  meanings 
of  many  words  are  noticeably  different  here  from 
those  in  England.  Some  have  found  these  differ- 
ences so  great  as  to  warrant  speaking  of  an  Amer- 
ican language,  paralleling  an  American  literature, 
or  corresponding  to  our  political  independence.  In 
spite  of  the  differences,  however,  the  weight  of  the 
argument  is  undoubtedly  against  such  a  proceeding, 
for  the  following  reasons:  (i)  Language  grouping 
need  not  follow  state  lines — there  is  a  great  danger 
in  a  principle  that  would  insist  that  it  must. 
(2)  British  colonies  are  not  justified  in  giving  up 
the  name  English  as  applied  to  their  speech.  The 
confusion  of  a  Canadian,  an  Australian,  a  South 


SOURCES  OF  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY  35 

African  language,  or  even  dialect,  would  be  unen- 
durable; and  these  would  be  quite  analogous  to  an 
American  speech,  except  for  the  political  relation- 
ship. (3)  The  similarities  between  American  and 
English  greatly  outweigh  the  differences;  the  dif- 
ferences illustrate  the  national  characters — e.  g.,  the 
colloquial,  enthusiastic,  slangy  traits  in  Americans, 
and  the  serious,  restrained  traits  of  the  Briton. 

The  Application  to  Technical  Writing.  The  stu- 
dent of  science  in  any  of  its  branches  will  come 
into  contact  with  some  other  language,  probably 
Latin,  or  German,  or  French.  He  will  study  Latin 
as  a  foundation  language,  and  the  modern  tongues 
because  of  their  helpfulness  to  him  in  their  current 
literature,  varying  according  to  the  branch  of 
science  he  pursues.  If  he  has  reviewed  the  history 
of  science,  he  will  note  that  the  ancient  peoples 
that  did  the  most  in  science  were  the  same  peoples 
that  expanded  most  in  national  life  and  empire 
building.  Although  science  had  its  beginnings  in 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  the  national  life  and  the 
languages  of  these  peoples  were  quite  inadequate  to 
transmit  or  preserve  the  scientific  learning  that 
was  accumulated.  With  Greece  and  the  Roman 
Empire,  however,  the  story  is  different.  Both  the 
national  life  and  the  language  were  capable  of  hand- 
ing down  its  scientific  achievements.  Of  modern 
nations  those  that  have  made  the  greatest  contri- 
butions to  science  have  also  had  the  better  Ian- 


36  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

guage  instruments — viz.,  Italy,  Germany,  France, 
and  England.  By  studying  one's  special  branch 
of  science  historically,  one  will  necessarily  find  a 
vocabulary,  or  at  least  the  sources  of  the  English 
vocabulary  pertaining  to  it,  with  which  he  must 
be  familiar.  As  science  has  influenced  practical 
life,  so  the  language  of  the  people  that  have  con- 
tributed to  that  science  has  made  itself  a  part  of 
the  present  English  vocabulary. 

Separate  Words.  In  addition  to  these  general 
backgrounds  there  are  a  great  many  separate  words 
or  terms  whose  interesting  history  will  shed  valuable 
light  upon  the  understanding  of  the  subject  matter. 
Some  of  these  words  have  changed  from  proper  nouns, 
the  names  of  men  who  were  inventors  or  discoverers 
of  the  item  in  question — e.  g.,  macadam,  watt,  ohm, 
volt,  galvanize,  bessemer,  or  names  of  places — e.  g., 
copper,  worsted,  ammonia,  lumber,  etc. ;  some  have 
come  from  natural  objects  with  a  scientific  meaning 
— e.  g.,  eye,  head,  foot,  leg,  arm,  ear,  socket;  some 
have  come  from  animals — e.  g.,  frog,  horse,  antenna; 
some  have  come  from  household  life — e.  g.,  cradle, 
hood,  shoe,  cap,  collar;  some  have  come  from  resem- 
blances— e.  g.,  I-beam,  A-frame,  S-hook,  Z-bar,  T-- 
square; some  have  been  manufactured  outright — 
e.  g.,  kodak,  gas,  uneeda.  The  writer  who  knows 
the  history  of  his  words,  words  that  he  has  to  use 
every  day  in  his  professional  work,  will  write  with 
more  interest  and  stronger  appeal  to  his  readers. 


SOURCES  OF  TECHNICAL  VOCABULARY  37 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  "III 

1.  Bring  in  lists  of  words  you  can  find  derived  from  other 
languages. 

2.  Bring  in  a  list  of  Americanisms  with  British  equivalents. 

3.  Discuss   the   important   contributions   to   science   from 
Greece;  from  Rome;  from  Italy;  from  Germany;  from 
France;  from  England;  from  the  United  States. 

4.  Find  from  a  dictionary  the  language  source  of  the  fol- 
lowing words: 

scientific          speedometer  phonograph 

technical          petroleum  automobile 

manufacture    dictionary  submarine 

architecture     barometer  alkali 

5.  Write  a  theme  on  the  Value  of  Knowing  the  Classical 
Languages. 

6.  Write  a  theme  on  the  Value  of  Knowing  a  Modern 
Language. 

7.  In  a  magazine  article  underline  words  derived  from  Latin. 

8.  In  a  magazine  article  mark  all  words  derived  from  proper 
names,  whether  capitalized  or  not. 

9.  Identify  the  following  coined  words,  and  so  far  as  possible 
explain  their  composition: 

Arco  Nabisco  Resinol 

Carbona  Neolin  Rexall 

Feltoid  Nujol  Sanatogen 

Fiberloid  O-Cedar  Socony 

Jello  Postum  Tydol 

Lyknu  Prestolite  Valspar 


BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

H.  Bradley:  The  Making  of  English. 
W.  Libby:  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Science. 
H.  L.  Mencken:  The  American  Language. 
J.  B.  Opdycke:    English  of  Commerce. 
J.  B.  Greenough  and  G.  L.  Kittredge:  Words  and  Their  Ways 
in  English  Speech. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   FORMATION   OP   TECHNICAL  WORDS 

Language  Expansion.  As  the  conditions  of  life 
have  changed,  languages  have  expanded  in  order 
to  voice  the  new  ideas  called  forth.  The  wonderful 
development  of  material  civilization  during  the 
past  century  has  left  few  human  activities  the  same 
as  they  were;  in  some  departments  the  changes 
have  been  slight,  in  others  they  have  been  more 
radical.  Parallel  with  the  material  enlargement  has 
come  a  new  philosophical  interpretation  of  life. 
These  two,  constituting  the  advance  of  science, 
have  almost  rebuilt  the  vocabularies  of  the  Western 
World.  The  era  of  electricity,  of  the  gasoline  engine, 
of  specialized  industry,  of  evolution,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  era  of  the  World  War,  has  brought  tremendous 
additions  to  the  language  of  science.  Although  we 
are  concerned  especially  with  the  English  language, 
the  expansion  seen  there  may  also  be  seen  in  Ger- 
man, French,  and  other  modern  tongues  of  progres- 
sive peoples.  The  making  of  dictionaries  has  proved 
to  be  an  exacting  undertaking  that  needs  frequent 
revision.  Our  speech  is  a  living,  vital  speech. 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS     39 

Methods  of  Language  Growth.  Each  language,  or 
at  least  each  family  of  languages,  has  its  own 
method  of  expansion.  Inasmuch  as  English  is  com- 
plex, it  adopts  several  methods.  The  following  five 
are  distinguished:  (i)  Going  back  to  a  classical 
language  for  a  root  form,  to  which  may  be  added 
a  prefix  or  a  suffix ;  for  example,  expansion,  progres- 
sive, dictionary.  (2)  Taking  a  native  word  and 
adding  a  new  meaning  to  it;  this  native  word  may 
in  turn  be  from  an  ancient  source,  but  established 
as  a  familiar  word  in  regular  form.  Examples  are : 
control,  used  of  the  apparatus  which  directs  or 
controls  a  machine;  initiative,  used  of  the  political 
means  for  starting  legislation;  bank,  dip,  pilot,  or 
wing,  as  used  in  aeronautics;  many  slang  expres- 
sions. (3)  Combining  two  or  more  established 
words  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  a  word  with  a 
new  meaning;  for  example,  aircraft,  understanding, 
race  suicide.  (4)  Borrowing  a  word  outright  from 
a  foreign  language,  when  there  is  no  equivalent 
in  English,  or  when  the  normal  equivalent  is  already 
used;  for  example,  chauffeur,  souvenir,  materiel, 
entrepreneur,  gymnasium,  habitat.  (5)  Creating 
a  new  combination  of  letters  for  an  artificial  word, 
such  as  the  words  mentioned  at  the  close  of  the 
preceding  chapter. 

The  Romance  languages  have  commonly  gone 
back  to  the  parent  Latin  for  a  root  word,  to  which 
have  been  added  prefixes  or  suffixes.  German  has 


40  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

used  its  own  roots,  either  modifying  them  with 
consistent  inflections  or  compounding  them  with 
other  established  words,  frequently  with  astonish- 
ing results  so  far  as  length  is  concerned — e.  g.y 
Naturwissenschaft.  English  in  its  early  form  ex- 
panded like  the  Teutonic  languages,  to  which  it  is 
related;  but  English  as  affected  by  the  Norman 
French  began  to  show  the  method  of  the  Romance 
tongues,  with  its  large  percentage  of  Latin  roots. 
English,  therefore,  has  not  shown  consistency  with 
either  source;  it  has  mixed  the  methods  as  well  as 
combined  the  sources,  so  that  it  has  even  united 
words  of  Teutonic  and  of  Latin  origin  into  one 
acceptable  English  word — e.  g.,  gentleman  (Fr. 
gentil  and  Ger.  Mann).  Further,  English  has 
shifted  the  part  of  speech  of  a  word;  frequently  it 
has  made  a  noun  do  duty  as  a  verb,  or  as  an  adjec- 
tive, without  changing  the  form  of  the  word  in 
any  way.  This  looseness  of  method  in  English 
has  made  the  task  of  learning  the  language  a  diffi- 
cult, but  at  the  same  time  a  fascinating,  one.  Some 
further  comment  is  necessary  about  two  of  the 
methods. 

Use  of  Prefixes  and  Suffixes.  The  classical  lan- 
guages and  the  languages  derived  from  them  em- 
ploy particles  called  prefixes  and  suffixes  to  build 
up  words.  These  particles  are  seldom  or  never 
used  as  separate  words,  although  a  very  few  are 
prepositions,  and  they  have  no  inflected  forms. 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS    41 

The  words  prefix  and  suffix  illustrate  in  themselves 
their  literal  meanings:  the  latter  part  of  the  two 
words  is  the  same,  and  is  from  the  Latin  figere, 
meaning  to  fix,  to  attach;  in  the  one  word  this  root 
is  combined  with  the  particle  pre-,  and  in  the  other 
word  with  the  particle  suf-,  a  variant  (for  reason 
of  euphony)  of  sub-.  Pre-  means  in  front  of,  and 
sub-  means  under  or  after.  Hence  we  have  the 
meanings:  a  particle  placed  before  a  word,  and 
a  particle  placed  after  a  word.  The  same  root 
word  may  have  both  a  prefix  and  a  suffix — e.  g., 
e-volu-tion ;  a  word  may  have  two  prefixes,  especially 
if  the  first  has  a  negative  force — e.  g.,  mis-in-form, 
un-pre-meditated,  also  con-de-scend,  re-sub-mit;  a 
word  may  have  two  suffixes,  especially  when  one 
designating  a  noun  is  added  to  one  designating  an 
adjective — e.  g.,  in-quisit-ive-ness,  multi-tudi-nous, 
mut-abil-ity;  sometimes  a  word  has  two  of  each — 
e.  g.,  in-ex-cus-able-ness,  dis-pro-port-ion-ate.  The 
effect  upon  the  number  of  words  capable  of  being 
formed  from  one  root  is  obvious;  the  advantage 
in  not  having  as  many  roots  as  words  is  equally 
obvious. 

Common  Prefixes.  It  will  be  well  to  have  a  list  of 
the  more  common  prefixes  and  suffixes  before  us  for 
use  in  forming  compounds.  Prefixes  from  Greek 
and  from  Latin  overlap  in  meaning  in  some  in- 
stances ;  the  Greek  are  to  be  used  with  Greek  roots 
and  the  Latin  with  Latin  roots. 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


GREEK  PREFIXES 


PARTICLE 

MEANING 

a-,  an- 

not,  a  negative 

amphi- 
(ambi-  Latin) 

around,  both 

ana- 
anti- 

up,  increasingly 
against,  opposed  to 

apo- 
cata- 
di-,  dis- 
dia- 
ec-,  ex-  (ex  Latin) 

upon 
down,  decreasingly 
twofold 
through 
out  of,  away  from 

en- 

in 

epi- 

upon 

eu- 
hemi- 

well,  pleasing 
half 

hyper- 
hypo- 
meta- 

more  than,  excess 
under,  beneath 
between,  beyond 

para- 

beside,  along  with 

peri- 

around 

poly- 

many 

pro- 
syn-,  sym-,  syl- 

in  front  of 
with,  together 

EXAMPLE 


ab- 


apathy,  agnostic, 

anarchy 

amphibian,  amphithe- 
ater 

(Lat.  ambiguous) 
analysis,  anagram 
antipathy 
apology,  apoplexy 
catastrophe,  catalog 
dissyllabic 
diameter,  diagnosis 
eclipse 

enthusiasm,  encyclope- 
dia 
epidermis,  epigram, 

epicycloid 
euphony,  eulogy 
hemicycle,  hemisphere 
hyperbola,  hypersolid 
hypodermic,  hyphen 
metamorphosis,  meta- 
phor, metaphysics 
parallel,  paragraph, 

paradox 
perimeter,  periscope, 

periphery 
polygon,  polytechnic, 

polyphase 
proboscis,  program 
synthesis,  sympathy, 
syllable,  synonym 

LATIN  PREFIXES 

away  from  abnormal,  absent, 

abscissa 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS    43 


PARTICLE  MEANING 

ad-,  ac-,  af-,  ag-,  to,  toward 

al-,  an-,;ap-,  ar-, 

as-,  at- 

ante-  before,  in  front  of 

bene-  well,  goodly 

bi-,  bis-  twofold 

circum-  around 

com-,  col-,  con-  with,  together 
contra- 


de- 
dis-,  dif- 

ex-,  ef-,  es- 

extra- 

in-,  il-,  im-,  ir- 

inter- 

mis- 


ob-,  oc-,  of-,  op-     against,  toward 

per- 

post- 

pre- 

pro- 

re- 

semi- 

sub-,  sue-,  suf-,     under,  after 

sug-  sup- 
super- 

(Fr.  sur) 

trans- 


EXAMPLE 
advance,  affix, 
aggressive,  assent, 
attract 
antecedent 
beneficial 

biscuit,  bisect,  biplane, 
circumference,  circum- 
navigate 

compound,  collect 
against,  opposed  to     contradict, contraband, 

contrary 

deteriorate,  defect 
dissimilar,  disconnect, 

diffuse 
experiment,  effervesce, 

escape 

extraordinary,  extrava- 
gant 

incandescent,  illumi- 
nate, irrigate 
interurban,  intermedi- 
ate 

misuse,  misspell 

obscure,  obtuse, 

oppose,  offer 

through,  by  means  of  perform,  perennial 
after  postpone,  postnatal 

before,  in  front  of      prefix,  prepare 
for,  on  behalf  of          proclaim,  pronoun 
back,  again  repeat,  rewrite 

half  semiannual,  semicolon 

subtract,  subway,  sug- 
gest, support 

above,  over  superintend,  super- 

structure, surmount, 
survey 
across  translate,  transit 


apart  from 
separation,  nega- 
tive 
away  from 

excessive,  unusual 
in,  to 

between,  into 
wrongly 


44 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


Common  Suffixes.  Suffixes  are  placed  after  the 
stem  portion  of  the  complex  word.  Many  of  them 
denote  the  part  of  speech  of  the  entire  word. 


PARTICLE 
-ic,  also  Latin, 
-ique  French 
-ism 

-ist 
-ize 

-sis 

-ter,  -tron 

-y,  -ia 


GREEK  SUFFIXES 


MEANING 

adjective;  pertain- 
ing to 

noun;  fact  or  state 
of  being 

noun;  person  who 
acts 

verb;  to  render,  to 
make  like 

noun;  that  which  is 

noun;  object 

noun;  quality,  art 


EXAMPLE 
volcanic,  scientific 

barbarism,  synchro- 
nism 
physicist,  violinist 

systematize,  American- 
ize 

analysis,  electrolysis 

theater,  electron 

petrography,  melan- 
cholia 


-able,  -ible 
-age 
-al,  -ical 


-an 


-ance,  -ence 

-ancy,  -ency 
-ant 


LATIN  SUFFIXES 

adjective;  power 
noun;  act  or  process 
adjective;  belong- 
ing to 

noun;  action 
adjective;  belong- 
ing to 

noun;  person, agent 
noun;  quality,  state 


portable,  terrible 
passage,  carriage 
royal,  geological 

arrival,  perusal 
suburban,  American 


molluscan,  musician 
abundance,  circum- 
stance 

superintendency 
pendant 


noun;  quality,  office 

adjective;  parti- 
cipial use 

noun;  agent  of  ac-    servant,  attendant 
tion 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS    45 


PARTICLE  MEANING  EXAMPLE 

-ary  adjective;  pertain-    necessary,  contrary 

dictionary,  constabu- 
lary 

concentrate,  punctu- 
ate 

particle, 

animalcule,  molecule 
masculine,  bovine 

medicine 

supposition,  accession 
devise,  advertise 
surprise,  treatise 
conclusive,  adjective 

fragment,  document, 

government 
testimony,  harmony 
donor,  error,  adviser, 

beggar,  doctor, 
poisonous,  gaseous, 

gracious 

fortitude,  aptitude 
signature,  pleasure, 

picture 

Anglo-Saxon  Forms.  In  Old  English  there  are 
several  prefixes  and  suffixes  that  are  used  also  as 
independent  words;  they  are  still  so  used,  but  per- 
haps as  frequently  in  combination  with  other 
words.  The  list  of  prefixes  includes : 

a-  at,  in,  on  aboard,  ashore,  afire 

be-  by,  with  intensive    beside,  belabor 

force 


-ate 


-cle,  -cule 


-in,  -ine 


-ion,  -sion,  -tion 
-ise 

-ive 
-ment 

-mony 
-or,  -er,  -ar 

-ous,  -eous,  -ious 

-tude 
-ure 


MEANING 

adjective;  pertain- 
ing to 

noun;  place  or 
thing,  where 

verb;  causative 

noun;  diminutive  ' 

adjective;  like, 
characterized  by 

noun;  possession 

noun;  act  or  state 

verb;  to  make 

noun;  state 

adjective;  relating 
to 

noun;  state,  result 

noun;  condition 
noun;  agent,  qual- 
ity 

adjective;  possess- 
ing 

noun;  quality 
noun;  act,  process 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


PARTICLE 
for- 
fore- 
out- 
over- 
under- 
with- 


MEANING 
negative,  against 
before 
beyond 

above,  more  than 
beneath 
from,  against 


EXAMPLE 

forget,  forbid,  forsake 
foresee,  foreman 
outrun,  outweigh 
overtake,  oversee 
undertake,  underrate 
withdraw,  withstand 


The  list  of  suffixes  includes: 


-craft 
-ful  (1) 

-hood 

-less 

-ship 

-some 

-ward 


art,  skill,  trade 
full  of,  character- 
ized by 

condition,  quality 
without,  lacking 
condition,  office 
like,  same 
direction  of 


statecraft,  aircraft 
wonderful,  careful 

childhood,  hardihood 
powerless,  wireless    . 
scholarship,  authorship 
bothersome,  lonesome 
backward,  northward 


In  addition,  there  are  un-  with  a  negative  force; 
-ing  as  a  participle  ending;  -ly  as  an  adverbial 
ending ;  -ness  as  a  noun  designation  of  quality,  and 
a  few  others. 


The  Literal  Meaning  of  Compound  Words.  It 
will  prove  helpful  to  our  vocabularies  if  we  analyze 
compound  words  for  the  literal  meaning  of  their 
parts,  and  conversely,  express  in  one  word  the 
meaning  of  a  phrase  or  descriptive  group  of  words. 
For  the  analysis  of  compound  words  the  following 
diagram  is  convenient : 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS     47 


Word 

Prefix 

Root 

Suffix 

Meaning 

information 

in- 

forma- 

-tion 

noun.  ;  showing  state 

of  being  put  into 

form. 

proportionate 

pro- 

port- 

-ion 

adjective;  pertain- 

-ate 

ing  to  being  for 

a  share  or  part. 

advertise 

ad- 

vert- 

-ise 

verb;  to  make  to 

turn  toward. 

For  the  condensation  of  phrases  which  contain 
literal  meanings  into  single  words  composed  of 
root  and  particle,  the  following  plan  is  suggestive : 

The  travelers  (made-to-sail-around)  the  world,  or  circum- 
navigated. 

The  next  task  was  to  build  the  (part-that-was-erected-above) 
of  the  factory,  or  super-struct-ure. 

Compounding  Separate  Words.  The  second 
method  of  making  new  words  in  English  that  needs 
further  explanation  (the  third  method  in  the  list 
on  page  39)  is  that  of  combining  two  existing  words 
to  form  a  word  with  a  different  meaning.  There  are 
few  rules  to  govern  the  process,  but  we  may  dis- 
tinguish three  stages  or  steps,  as  follows:  (i)  The 
use  of  two  separate  words  in  association,  each  main- 
taining its  identity.  The  words  are  written  to- 
gether, but  as  separate  words;  they  have  a  place 
in  a  dictionary  as  though  they  were  a  new  expres- 
sion, however,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  are  new 
terms.  Usually  the  two  are  used  as  a  noun,  even 


48  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

though  each  one  may  not  be  a  noun.  If  both  are 
nouns,  the  first  loses  its  force  as  a  substantive  and 
becomes  an  adjective.  Examples  are:  piston  rod, 
iron  ore,  cast  iron,  gas  engine,  street  car,  sky  line. 
(2)  The  use  of  two  words  united  by  a  hyphen. 
This  mark  of  punctuation  brings  together  the  two 
words  more  closely  than  the  space  does,  and  is  the 
means  of  providing  a  distinctive  connotation  for 
the  hyphenated  expression.  There  is  no  clear  rule 
when  the  hyphen  shall  be  used;  usage  and  the 
special  meaning  of  the  combined  words  determine 
whether  it  is  used  or  not.  In  some  cases  the  hyphen 
is  necessary,  to  distinguish  the  combined  expression 
from  the  two  words  written  separately — e.  g.t  note 
the  difference  between  green -house  and  green  house; 
between  iron-saw  and  iron  saw;  between  poor-farm 
and  poor  farm.  The  following  are  commonly  writ- 
ten with  the  hyphen:  feed-pipe,  fire-brick,  high- 
pressure,  blue-print,  short-story,  safety-valve,  gas- 
oven,  etc.  (3)  The  complete  union  of  the  two  ele- 
ments to  make  a  new  single  word.  The  meaning  of 
the  two  words  combined  is  so  distinctive  and  useful 
that  not  even  a  hyphen  is  necessary.  This  group 
is  not  so  large  as  the  other  groups,  and  has  been 
arrived  at  by  a  process  of  development  that  may 
in  some  cases  be  traced.  Examples  of  unified  words 
are:  horsepower,  candlepower,  railroad,  substation, 
skyscraper,  steamship,  gaslight,  and  the  directions 
northeast,  southeast,  etc.  In  some  instances  the 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS     49 

three  stages  are  discernible  in  the  same  two  words, 
revealing  the  changes  in  current  opinion  and  in  the 
importance  of  the  object  in  question.  For  example, 
railroad  was  written  as  two  words — rail  road — when 
the  institution  was  new;  later,  as  the  name  became 
more  common  and  the  institution  better  estab- 
lished, a  hyphen  was  used  to  connect  the  two  words 
— rail-road ;  now  the  two  words  are  invariably  writ- 
ten solid,  though  the  common  abbreviation  is  con- 
tinued as  R.  R.  Much  the  same  is  true  of  the  words 
horsepower  and  candlepower.  In  most  cases,  then, 
the  only  criterion  for  the  form  of  the  compound 
is  usage;  although  we  find  substantives  used  rather 
freely  as  adjectives,  the  formation  of  really  new 
words  proceeds  slowly.  An  author  must  justify 
his  use  of  compounds,  if  they  are  to  have  standing. 
Changes  in  Part  of  Speech.  Almost  every  pos- 
sible combination  of  parts  of  speech  is  found  in 
English  compounds.  The  second  of  the  two  ele- 
ments is  invariably  the  more  significant,  the  former 
qualifying  it  in  some  way.  The  part  of  speech  of 
the  compound  is  not  limited,  however,  to  that  of 
the  second  element.  To  show  some  of  the  possi- 
bilities let  us  group  compounds  by  the  second 
element.  With  a  noun  may  be  put  another  noun 
(the  most  extensive  class) — e.  g.,  windmill,  foot- 
ball, boat  house,  water-jug;  an  adjective — e.g., 
highroad,  hothouse,  yellow-hammer;  an  adverb — 
e.g.,  overcoat,  downfall,  sometimes;  a  verb — e.g., 


50  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

scarecrow,  stay  bolt,  breakfast.  With  an  adjec- 
tive may  be  put  a  noun  —  e.  g.,  sea- worthy, 
weather-wise;  another  adjective — e.g.,  highbred, 
high  strung;  an  adverb — e.  g.,  over-much,  evergreen, 
inmost;  a  verb — e.  g.,  slipshod.  With  an  adverb 
may  be  put  a  noun — e.  g.,  runner-up;  a  pronoun — 
e.  g.,  whichever;  a  verb — e.  g.,  layover,  breakdown, 
run-away;  or  a  preposition — e.  g.,  within,  through- 
out. With  a  verb  may  be  put  a  noun — e.  g.,  land- 
slide, home  run,  wiredraw;  an  adjective  —  e.  g., 
whitewash,  widespread;  an  adverb — e.  g.,  overtake, 
inlay,  outlook,  understand.  These  examples  will 
all  be  found  as  independent  entries  in  the  diction- 
ary ;  they  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  new  words 
in  our  language.  There  are  a  few  compounds  that 
involve  more  than  two  words — e.  g.,  inasmuch, 
whatsoever,  nowadays.  It  will  be  noted  that  almost 
all  of  these  compounds  are  Saxon  words,  or  Teu- 
tonic. The  principle  of  the  Romance  tongues  is 
to  form  compounds  by  means  of  the  particles,  the 
principle  of  the  Teutonic  tongues  to  combine  estab- 
lished words.  Our  modern  American  speech  adopts 
both  methods,  and  is  not  always  consistent  in  its 
use  of  sources. 

Possibilities  for  New  Words.  Both  of  these 
methods  are  still  open;  we  are  forming  new  words 
every  year;  dictionary  making  is  a  continuous  proc- 
ess. In  our  everyday  speech  the  Teutonic  method 
prevails;  in  our  scientific  vocabulary  the  Latin 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS    51 

method  prevails.  If  one  knows  a  score  or  more  of 
Greek  and  Latin  roots,  both  nouns  and  verbs,  he 
has  the  possibilities  of  adding  to  his  English 
vocabulary  several  hundred  words.  The  following 
list  will  readily  suggest  ten  or  more  words  each : 

GREEK  NOUNS  LATIN  NOUNS 

hydor  water  finis  end,  limit 

chronos  time  forma  form 

onoma  name  passus  step 

phone  sound  pax  peace 

aer  air  lux  light 

metron  measure  dux  leader 

logos  word,  speech  annus  year 

autos(pro.)    self  lex  law 

GREEK  VERBS                                  LATIN  VERBS 

tithenai  (thesis)  to  set                      portare  to  carry 

graphein         to  write                        trahere  to  draw 

kritein            to  judge                      scribere  to  write 

philein            to  love                         facere  to  make 

mittere  to  send 

pressare  to  press 

The  Question  of  Artificial  Languages.  The  possi- 
bility of  the  growth  of  language  has  been  a  con- 
tributory cause  in  the  various  efforts  to  create  a 
new  artificial  language — e.  g.,  Volapuk,  Ro,  and 
Esperanto.  The  argument  goes  that  if  languages 
are  to  grow  they  should  conform  to  scientific  prin- 
ciples. No  language  now  in  existence  follows  the 
laws  of  theory  absolutely,  and  probably  never  will. 
Therefore  a  careful  systematic  working  out  of 
grammatical  laws  will  be  an  advantage  for  all 


52  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

peoples.  The  world  -  unifying  purpose  is  also 
prominent  in  the  minds  of  those  who  advocate  a 
single  artificial  tongue,  and  furnishes  a  very  com- 
mendable motive.  In  fact  from  a  theoretical  point 
of  view  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
such  a  plan.  On  the  other  hand,  the  difficulties 
are  more  insurmountable  than  with  the  universal 
adoption  of  the  metric  system.  If  simplified  spell- 
ing has  been  hard  to  accept,  an  artificial  language 
will  be  much  harder.  The  question  of  the  national 
literatures,  the  educational  program,  the  double 
standard  that  would  at  least  for  a  time  have  to  be 
tolerated,  and  the  difficulties  of  a  spoken  as  well 
as  of  a  written  tongue,  make  the  adoption  of  any 
universal  language,  particularly  an  artificial  one, 
practically  impossible. 

Diction.  The  whole  matter  of  the  selection  of 
words  in  writing,  whether  prevailingly  Latin  or 
Saxon,  learned  or  vulgar,  unfamiliar  or  common, 
is  included  under  the  heading  Diction.  The  word 
is  directly  derived  from  the  Latin  term  for  word 
or  saying.  Every  handbook  has  a  list  of  words  and 
expressions  that  are  not  permissible  according  to 
good  English  usage;  it  is  very  much  worth  while  to 
examine  such  a  list  with  care  and  to  avoid  the 
habitual  use  of  any  term  that  has  not  won  its 
way  into  the  better  grade  of  modern  publications. 
Instead  of  presenting  a  list  here,  which  would  of 
necessity  duplicate  lists  previously  printed,  we  will 


FORMATION  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS     53 

summarize  the  practice  that  is  widely  approved, 
even  though  not  universally  adopted,  under  the 
heading 

RULES  GOVERNING  DICTION 

1.  Avoid  the  use  of  obsolete  words. 

e.  g.,  gotten,  proven,  hath,  goeth. 

2.  Do  not  use  a  foreign  word  when  there  is  an  English 
equivalent. 

e.  g.,  depot,  per  annum,  etc. 

3.  Avoid  provincialisms,  or  words  associated  with  limited 
sections. 

e.  g.,  reckon,  right  (as  an  adverb). 

4.  Avoid  improprieties,  or  words  taken  out  of  their  correct 
part  of  speech. 

e.  g.,  a.  combine,  to  neighbor,  ain't. 

5.  Avoid  slang. 

e.  g.,  mad,  gym,  rep,  rough  neck,  up  to  you. 

6.  Avoid  illogical  constructions. 

e.  g.,  different  from,  independent  of. 

Condensed  still  further,  a  law  may  be  formulated 
thus:  The  burden  of  proof  is  upon  the  one  who 
uses  any  word  of  irregular  formation,  or  out  of  its 
proper  meaning.  Good  usage  requires  no  justifica- 
tion. A  law  formulated  in  this  way  will  admit  of 
exceptions  upon  proper  occasions,  but  will  ordinarily 
keep  written  English  up  to  a  high  level  of  literary 
values. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  IV 

i.   Make  as  many  words  as  you  can  by  adding  prefixes  or 
suffixes  to  these  root  forms: 

chronos  Gr.  for  time.  graph-  Gr.  for  to  write, 

finis  L.  for  end.  lex  (leg-)  L.  for  law. 

mitt-  (miss-)  L.  for  to  send      press-  L.  for  to  press. 


54  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

\ 

2.  Distinguish  between  the  meanings  of  the  following  words: 

subscript  and  subscription, 
detector  and  detective, 
intensive  and  extensive, 
expire  and  inspire. 

3.  Express  the  following  phrases  in  single  words  that  include 
a  prefix  or  suffix  or  both: 

a-state-of-being-seen-plainly. 

to-make-under-a-rule. 

a-state-of-not-being-grasped-before. 

4.  Take  a  news-story  and  underline  all  words  containing  a 
prefix  or  suffix.      Do  the  same  with  an  editorial  and  a 
newspaper  poem.    Compare  the  frequency  of  compounds 
in  the  different  types  of  articles.    Do  the  same  with  a 
magazine  article. 

5.  Take  a  news-story  and  underline  all  the  compounded 
words  not  involving  a  prefix  or  a  suffix.    Do  the  same  with 
an  editorial  and  a  newspaper  poem.     Compare  the  fre- 
quency of  the  compounds  in  the  different  types  of  article. 
Do  the  same  with  a  magazine  article. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  words  you  can  find  borrowed  directly 
from  some  other  language. 

7.  Report  on  Esperanto. 

8.  Look  up  the  derivation  of  the  following  words: 

macadam  bessemer  pasteurize 

babbitt  copper  worsted 

ammonia  cambric  mazda 

electricity          gasoline  atlas 

9.  Discuss  the  Value  of  Slang. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

W.  D.  Lewis  and  M.  D.  Holmes:  Knowing  and  Using  Words. 
H.  S.  V.  Jones:  Words  and  Sentences. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION 

Grammatical  Requirements.  After  words,  the  next 
significant  unit  of  language  is  the  sentence.  Just 
as  the  writing  of  exposition  requires  the  right  use 
of  words,  so  it  also  requires  the  use  of  effectively 
constructed  sentences,  including  their  correct 
punctuation. 

A  sentence  is  defined  as,  "the  expression  of  a 
complete  thought."  A  word  is  a  name  of  an  object 
or  idea,  and  is,  therefore,  only  the  suggestion  of  a 
thought.  A  sentence  says  or  asks  something  about 
a  single  thought,  as  named  by  a  word,  using  that 
word  usually  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Some 
one  of  the  various  possible  outworkings  of  the  sug- 
gested thought  shapes  itself  into  a  sentence.  A 
sentence  is  a  distinct  advance  over  a  word. 

The  working  out  of  a  sentence  must  follow  cer- 
tain lines  that  we  call  rules  of  grammar;  it  is 
neither  complete  nor  correct  if  it  does  not  obey 
these  rules.  But  after  a  sentence  meets  these 
grammatical  requirements  there  are  great  possi- 


S6  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

bilities  for  effectiveness  or  lack  of  effectiveness. 
It  is  with  these  further  possibilities  that  exposition 
has  to  do.  We  recall,  however,  that  grammar  names 
three  kinds  of  sentences :  the  simple,  the  compound, 
and  the  complex.  The  last  two  may  be  combined 
to  compose  another  intermediate  type — the  com- 
plex-compound. Grammar  also  designates  that 
the  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  a  subject  and 
a  predicate;  the  predicate  includes  a  verb,  and  if 
the  verb  is  transitive,  a  direct  object,  or  if  the  verb 
is  intransitive,  it  may  stand  alone,  have  an  indirect 
object,  or  a  subjective  complement.  Grammar 
controls  the  uses  of  the  various  parts  of  speech  in 
sentence  construction,  the  agreement  of  subject  and 
verb,  the  agreement  of  words  and  their  modifiers, 
the  uses  of  phrases  and  clauses,  the  inflected  forms 
of  nouns  and  pronouns,  the  conjugation  of  verbs, 
the  use  of  infinitives  and  participles,  and  the  proper 
subordination  of  thought  in  a  sentence.  Every 
person  should  have  the  ability  to  analyze  a  sentence 
— that  is,  to  determine  the  skeleton  framework  of 
it,  and  the  relation  of  all  subordinate  material  to 
this  framework.  No  one  can  presume  to  write 
effectively,  not  to  say  acceptably,  unless  he  under- 
stands the  grammatical  laws  of  sentence  structure. 
Rhetorical  Requirements.  Besides  the  require- 
ments of  grammar  are  the  principles  of  rhetoric, 
which  present  the  relations  of  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence to  each  other,  with  reference  to  order,  variety, 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION     57 

unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  The  study  of 
rhetoric  is  quite  distinct  from  the  study  of  gram- 
mar, although  rhetoric  presupposes  grammar.  Rhet- 
oric goes  to  a  higher  plane,  as  it  were,  and  pre- 
sents certain  possibilities  in  the  phrasing  and  the 
arrangement  of  thought,  all  of  the  possibilities  being 
strictly  grammatical.  The  function  of  rhetoric  is 
to  render  the  expression  of  the  thought  more  force- 
ful, more  clear,  more  attractive.  Its  appeal  is  to 
the  skill  as  well  as  to  the  knowledge  of  the  writer. 
The  effective  use  of  the  principles  of  rhetoric  enables 
a  writer  to  avoid  looseness  of  sentence  structure, 
indefiniteness  of  thought  expression. 

The  technical  writer  will  look  upon  grammar  and 
rhetoric  much  as  a  literary  writer  will;  no  writer 
may  neglect  them.  A  knowledge  of  grammar  and 
rhetoric  is  essential.  The  purpose,  however,  of  the 
literary  writer  is  somewhat  different  from  the  pur- 
pose of  a  technical  writer.  He  generally  has  an 
artistic  appeal  in  mind,  or  an  emotional  element 
which  is  closely  associated  with  attractiveness  of 
sound  or  form — the  musical  or  rhythmical  quality 
that  is  a  property  of  words  as  well  as  of  song. 
The  instructional  purpose  is  not  neglected,  and  is 
oftentimes  achieved  indirectly  with  as  great  suc- 
cess as  it  is  directly.  The  writer  who  aims  at 
producing  literature  pays  deliberate  attention  to 
beauty  of  form  to  match  the  quality  of  thought; 
or  perhaps  an  inherent,  unstudied  ability  to  adapt 


58  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

form  of  expression  to  nobility  of  thought  has  en- 
abled a  writer  to  produce  genuine  literature.  The 
writer  of  technical  exposition  puts  instruction  fore- 
most; he  aims  to  convey  information  in  as  clear 
and  at  the  same  time  as  concise  a  way  as  he  can. 
The  attractiveness  of  form,  the  employment  of 
figures  of  speech  in  rhetorical  usage,  the  climactic 
or  periodic  structure — these  and  other  points  of 
rhetoric  are  of  secondary  interest  to  him.  Narra- 
tion, description,  and  argumentation  may  have 
their  long,  involved  sentences  without  much,  if  any, 
loss  in  effectiveness,  but  exposition  cannot  afford 
to  run  the  risk  of  burying  the  thought  in  words. 
The  qualities  essential  to  exposition  as  a  type  of 
writing  are  the  qualities  that  a  writer  of  technical 
discourse  must  cultivate.  Those  qualities  have 
been  named  as  clearness,  accuracy,  and  unity.  Let 
us  find  how  the  writer  may  secure  these  qualities 
in  his  sentence  organization. 

Securing  Clearness.  Clearness  cannot  be  a  quality 
of  a  whole  composition  unless  it  is  found  in  the 
separate  sentences  of  the  composition.  A  failure 
to  secure  clearness  may  be  due  to  a  lack  of  vocab- 
ulary— i.  e.,  of  words  adequate  to  embody  the 
thought;  such  a  lack  of  vocabulary  is,  of  course, 
most  evident  in  the  cases  of  beginners  and  foreigners 
struggling  with  language  difficulties.  This  is  by 
no  means  the  only  reason  for  a  lack  of  clearness, 
but  when  found  is  to  be  overcome  only  by  long, 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION     59 

patient  study  of  words.  The  other  faults  that 
violate  clearness  can  be  overcome  by  due  care  in 
handling  the  sentence.  The  more  outstanding 
faults  that  destroy  clearness  are  wrongly  placed 
sentence  elements,  or  a  change  in  point  of  view; 
suggestions  for  securing  clearness  are  therefore: 

1.  Be  sure  that  modifiers  really  affect  the  words 
they  should.     Adverbs   are   the   chief   source   of 
trouble,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  sentences: 

The  one  trouble  with  this  magazine  is  that  it  contains  only 
the  views  of  the  company  that  puts  it  out. 

The  high  schools  are  not  nearly  graduating  as  many  students 
as  enter. 

After  being  arrested  and  paying  his  fine,  the  offender  can 
start  operations  again  and  can  make  enough  before  being 
arrested  again  not  to  feel  the  serious  effects  of  the  previous  one. 

No  thought  is  generally  given  to  the  literary  side  of  writing. 

In  these  illustrations  the  adverbs  are  not  next  to 
the  words  that  they  really  modify. 

2.  Do  not  omit  any  sentence  element  that  is 
necessary  for  grammatical  or  logical  connection  of 
thoughts.     Often  a  writer  fails  to  put  down  on 
paper   a   word   or   a   connecting   thought   which 
formed  a  link  in  the  chain  of  his  thinking,  and  the 
omission  of  which  leaves  a  gap  that  is  hard  for 
the  reader  to  cross.    Notice  these  examples: 

Mr.  Allen  was  evidently  a  naturalist  very  much  interested 
in  all  kinds  of  Nature,  especially  birds.  (Birds  are  not  a  kind 
of  Nature;  a  connecting  thought  is  missing.) 


60  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

In  my  own  experience,  I  have  found  that  I  never  secured 
any  benefit  from  study  when  I  felt  like  doing  anything  but 
studying.  (The  time  relation  here  needs  a  clearer  and  fuller 
statement.) 

Not  only  does  Germany  send  its  salesmen,  but  its  engineers 
and  politicians  also  to  foreign  territories,  well  versed  in  the 
tongue  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  to  reside.  (A  relative 
pronoun  is  necessary,  and  a  verb,  to  introduce  the  clause 
beginning  well  versed;  the  word  also  is  misplaced.) 

Collection  letters  are  written  on  the  principle  of  collecting 
the  money  but  keeping  the  customer.  Courtesy  but  firmness 
must  be  shown.  (A  thought  in  between  these  two  sentences, 
connecting  them  more  closely,  has  been  omitted.) 

3.  Do  not  change  the  point  of  view,  either  in 
person,  number,  or  subject  matter,  in  the  course  of 
a  sentence.  When  one  starts  a  sentence  on  a  par- 
ticular line  of  approach,  he  should  maintain  that 
viewpoint  all  the  way  through.  The  following  sen- 
tences illustrate  a  change  of  point  of  view: 

In  such  cases  one  should  read  something  that  will  take  your 
mind  off  your  work  or  study.  (Change  from  third  to  second 
person.) 

All  may  gain  knowledge,  pleasure,  a  finer  and  broader 
understanding  and  sympathy,  entertainment,  a  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  and  last  but  by  no  means  least,  knowledge  that 
will  aid  him  in  his  daily  work.  (Change  from  plural  to  singular 
number.) 

Securing  Precision.  The  characteristic  of  accu- 
racy or  precision  is  essential  in  expository  writing. 
The  violation  of  it  produces  vagueness  of  statement. 
We  are  not  concerned  here  with  misstatements  of 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION     61 

facts  so  far  as  the  truth  of  the  facts  is  concerned, 
although  of  course  that  is  a  most  vital  factor  in 
scientific  writing;  we  are  concerned  with  a  failure 
to  convey  an  accurate  meaning  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  reasoning  or  logic  of  the  sentence.  If 
a  sentence  is  ambiguous  or  vague  in  its  meaning, 
or  illogical  in  its  organization,  it  is  an  example  of 
the  fault  referred  to  here.  In  order  to  secure  pre- 
cision a  writer  should  observe  the  following  sug- 
gestions : 

i.  Complete  all  statements  involving  compari- 
sons. Frequently  the  second  half  of  a  comparison 
is  readily  understood  although  not  stated  explicitly; 
the  fault  is  not  one  of  a  lack  of  clearness,  but  only 
of  a  lack  of  completeness.  Sometimes  the  context 
will  make  clear  the  meaning  when  a  single  detached 
sentence  will  not;  it  is  a  safe  rule,  however,  to 
say  that  every  sentence  should  have  within  itself 
all  the  elements  for  a  full,  complete  meaning.  The 
following  sentences  show  this  point: 

Vermont  life  is  very  aptly  described,  more  as  an  inhabitant 
than  an  outsider.  (An  illogical  reference.) 

Man's  thinking  brought  about  such  beginnings  that  enabled 
subsequent  customs  and  ways  to  be  added  to  this  basis.  (The 
thought  of  the  sentence  is  incomplete  within  itself.) 

As  far  as  existence  is  concerned,  he  leaves  the  world  at  quite 
an  early  age.  (The  meaning  is  not  precise;  there  seems  to  be 
duplication  of  thought.) 

If  a  young  engineer  is  sent  to  a  foreign  land  to  pursue  his 
profession,  he  will  soon  learn  the  language  of  the  country 


62  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

in  less  time  and  more  thoroughly,  in  fact  this  is  the  best  way 
to  learn  a  language.  (The  second  half  of  the  comparison  is 
omitted.) 

2.  Give  reasons  and  causes  in  logical  order.    In 
particular  avoid  the  expression  "the  reason  is  be- 
cause" and  use  the  words  "due  to"  as  an  adjective 
and  not  with  a  verb.    These  sentences  are  examples : 

The  reason  an  engineering  course  is  so  hard  is  because  there 
are  so  many  subjects  to  be  studied  in  only  four  years.  (Say 
The  reason  ...  is  that  there  are,  etc.) 

He  found  the  work  very  difficult  due  to  his  lameness.  (Say 
"because  of  his  lameness"  or  The  difficulty  of  the  work  was 
due  to,  etc.) 

3.  Be  sure  that  all  pronouns  have  definite  and 
correct  antecedents.     Here  again  the  fault  is  not 
always  one  of  clearness ;  the  meaning  may  be  clear, 
when  it  is  not  precise.    There  are  several  ways  in 
which  the  reference  of  relatives  may  lack  precision : 
no  antecedent  at  all  may  be  expressed,  two  words 
may  be  possible  antecedents  for  a  pronoun,  an  idea 
rather  than  a  definite  word  may  be  the  antecedent. 
In  some  of  these,  especially  the  last,  no  objection 
can  be  raised  provided  the  sentence  is  otherwise 
effectively  written;  the  indefinite  pronoun  in  such 
expressions  as   "it  rains"  is  recognized  as  good 
usage.     In  general,  however,  every  pronoun  must 
refer  to  a  perfectly  clear  and  correct  antecedent 
expressed  as  a  prominent  rather  than  a  subordinate 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION     63 

grammatical  part  of  the  sentence  or  immediate 
context.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  faulty 
reference  of  pronouns: 

He  likes  baseball  but  can  say  nothing  good  for  football, 
which  he  thinks  is  unfair  because  they  are  allowed  to  send  in 
another  man  when  one  is  injured.  (No  antecedent  for  "they.") 

Finally  it  swung  open  and  in  so  doing  encountered  John's 
fist  which  in  turn  shattered  the  pane  of  glass  and  incidentally 
cut  John's  hand.  (Antecedent  of  "which"  is  fist  when  the 
first  part  of  the  clause  is  read,  but  is  "pane"  when  second  part 
of  the  clause  is  read.) 

Although  I  do  not  entirely  agree  with  the  essay,  I  do  agree 
with  some  parts  of  it.  This  philosopher  has  exaggerated 
this  a  little,  I  believe.  (Antecedent  for  second  "this"  is  not 
stated.) 

He  explains  the  telautograph,  located  at  the  bank-cashier's 
window,  by  which  he  can  in  a  very  few  moments  find  whether 
or  not  a  customer's  account  is  good.  (Antecedent  of  "which" 
is  not  the  noun  it  stands  nearest.) 

The  only  way  to  keep  informed  in  regard  to  European 
progress  is  to  read  foreign  magazines  which  is  impossible 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  foreign  language.  (Antecedent 
of  "which"  is  the  whole  idea.) 

In  the  introduction  of  this  article,  which  is  long,  he  gives 
some  reasons  for  the  present  high  prices  and  the  conditions 
to  which  they  may  be  attributed.  (Is  it  the  introduction  or 
the  article  which  is  long?) 

4.  In  using  participles,  either  present  or  past, 
or  gerund  phrases,  be  sure  to  express  in  close  associ- 
ation the  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  they  agree 
in  thought.  An  exception  that  is  more  apparent 
than  real,  is  the  case  of  an  imperative  verb,  whose 
subject  is  understood;  an  example  is  the  preceding 


64  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

sentence,  in  which  the  gerund  phrase  "in  using" 
agrees  with  you  understood,  the  subject  of  "be." 
The  failure  to  observe  this  rule  leads  to  the  ludicrous 
errors  of  many  faulty  advertisements.  Some  ex- 
amples of  its  violation  follow: 

By  using  these,  the  cost  of  handling  and  transportation  is 
greatly  reduced,  which  is  a  large  item  of  the  basic  cost  of  the 
product. 

Any  of  the  five  senses  may  be  used  in  describing  an  object. 

In  making  the  print,  the  paper  is  easily  torn. 

When  using  the  crowbar  .the  product  of  the 'force  arm^or 
distance  of  the  force  from  tne  fulcrum,  times  the  force^equals 
the  weight  times  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  fulcrum, 
or  the  weight  arm. 

Securing  Unity.  Unity  is  a  quality  by  no  means 
limited  to  exposition,  although  it  is  fundamental 
there.  Its  violation  is  any  departure  from  the 
original  subject  matter  or  from  the  path  of  think- 
ing along  which  the  writer  started.  In  our  discus- 
sion it  will  be  considered  as  a  mistake  of  form 
merely.  Failure  to  secure  unity  in  thinking  is 
digressiveness,  and  in  expression  is  disrelation  of 
sentence  organization.  In  order  to  secure  unity, 
the  following  suggestions  are  to  be  observed : 

i.  Limit  a  sentence  to  a  single  idea  —  which 
is  to  say,  remember  the  definition  of  a  sentence. 
Unrelated  or  loosely  related  ideas  should  not  be 
put  together  in  a  sentence.  The  following  sen- 
tences violate  unity  in  this  way : 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION    65 

He  grew  up  and  had  only  a  grammar-school  education  and 
he  also  acquired  the  power  to  think,  but  now  he  is  always 
trying  to  find  some  scheme  to  perpetuate  motion.  (The  exces- 
sive use  of  conjunctions  destroys  unity;  several  sentences  should 
be  made,  with  some  enlargement  of  material.) 

He  had  little  education  and  his  clothes  were  of  the  style 
suitable  to  lumbermen,  nevertheless  he  was  a  man  of  Christian 
principles  and  was  determined  to  do  right. 

He  is  quite  humorous,  and  I  find  his  writing  very  readable. 

2.  In  a  long  sentence,  bring  related  ideas  closely 
together.    The  following  sentence  needs  recasting 
in  order  to  secure  unity: 

The  man  who  owns  an  automobile  and  is  solely  dependent 
upon  his  instruction  book  for  location  of  trouble,  will  find 
himself  in  a  sad  predicament  if  his  engine  suddenly  stops  dead 
somewhere  far  away  from  civilization  and  having  left  his 
instruction  book  at  home.  (There  is  a  dangling  participle 
here  as  well  as  a  loosely  constructed  sentence.) 

3.  Give  each  sentence  a  central  thought  and 
subordinate  all  other  material  to  that  idea.    This 
suggestion  is  a  remedy  for  several  of  the  sentences 
quoted  as  examples  under  i  and  2.     It   is   not 
necessary  to  use  simple  sentences;  in  fact  the  con- 
stant use  of  simple  sentences  or  simply  compounded 
sentences  produces  a  monotonous  style.     Careful 
subordination  of  thought  is  very  important.    The 
following  sentences  will  gain  greatly  if  changed  into 
complex  sentences : 

Many  years  ago  the  average  family  grew  and  prepared  their 
food,  spun  the  flax  for  their  wearing  apparel,  and  in  general 
they  were  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 


66  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

He  had  gone  to  the  city  to  find  himself  a  wife,  had  wooed 
and  won  her  in  the  space  of  two  weeks,  and  was  taking  her 
back  over  the  wind-swept  mountains  to  his  cabin. 

4.  Observe  parallelism  in  the  expression  of  similar 
thoughts,  or  thoughts  that  bear  a  similar  relation 
to  the  sentence.  This  rule  will  include  the  use  of 
correlatives,  such  as  either  .  .  .  or,  both  .  .  .  and,  not 
only  .  .  .  but  also,  which  should  be  followed  by 
words  of  the  same  part  of  speech;  it  is  especially 
important  in  the  use  of  series  of  items.  The  ex- 
amples given  fail  to  observe  parallel  structure : 

The  combined  letters  of  Mr.  Kipling  are  worthy  of  note, 
in  regard  to  his  powers  of  description,  his  arguments  and  some 
dialect. 

All  of  the  machine  tools  are  in  excellent  condition  and 
should  tend  to  improve  the  character  of  courses  given  in 
machine  shops  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  instructor  and 
the^tudent. 

One  is  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  scientific  man  and 
the  other  for  the  average  man. 

Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  discourtesy  and  nagging  a 
customer. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  V 

1.  Find  examples  of  the  three  types  of  sentences. 

2.  Copy  the  opening  sentences  of  expository  articles  in  a 
magazine,  and  note  the  variety  of  sentence  structure. 

3.  Correct  the  following  sentences: 

a.  The  salesman,  when  he  sells  an  article,  uses  a  convincing 
argument  which  either  sells  it  or  fails  to  convince  his 
customer. 

b.  A  foreign  language  gives  him  this  training  of  brain,  and 
at  the  same  time  is  useful  in  his  work,  which  makes  it 
very  valuable  to  an  engineer. 


THE  SENTENCE  IN  EXPOSITION     67 

c.  Then,  too,  the  current  and  e.m.f .  must  be  kept  constant 
which  is  easily  done. 

d.  The  curve  will  show  a  small  e.m.f.  with  zero  current  to 
start  which  was  due  to  the  residual  magnetism. 

e.  A  shunt  generator  will  not  build  up  without  some 
residual  magnetism  present.    Also  if  brush  resistance 
is  too  great  or  if  there  is  a  reversal  of  connections  in 
field  circuit. 

f .  The  operation  of  compound  machines  is  so  much  more 
sensitive  than  shunt  machines  for  the  reason  that  when 
the  load  is  applied  to  the  both  machines,  it  will  not 
divide  up  equally,  that  is  each  will  take  half  the  load. 

g.  This  experiment  was  run  somewhat  different  than  the 
one  explained  on  the  instruction  sheets. 

h.  If  one  machine  gets  a  little  more  load  than  the  other 
the  series  field  is  strengthened,  which  increases  the 
excitation  consequently  the  voltage  and  this  unbal- 
anced action  will  continue  until  the  load  becomes  light 
enough  on  the  other  machine  so  that  its  voltage  raises 
above  the  other  and  then  the  load  will  surge  back  to 
that  machine. 

i.  Its  widespread  use  not  only  for  automobiles,  water  and 
aircraft  as  well  as  for  stationary  uses  illustrates  its 
wide  application. 

j.  The  main  building  of  this  plant  is  of  red  brick,  being 
about  120  feet  square,  60  feet  high,  with  only  a  few 
windows  in  the  whole  building. 

k.  The  way  to  avoid  all  these  errors  is  to  be  neat  and 
orderly  in  all  computations  even  though  at  first  thought 
it  seems  to  require  more  time  whereas  in  reality  the 
converse  is  true. 

1.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows  how  a  small  machine 
is  built  from  a  shaft  hanger  and  a  few  easily  made 
forgings,  which  does  not  require  much  time  to  construct 
and  is  efficient  when  put  into  operation. 

m.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a  sound  reason  for  every  step 
in  advance. 


68  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

n.  Writing  these  reports  is  an  art  which  takes  years  of 
practice  to  be  proficient. 

o.  In  this  way  a  separation  is  possible,  the  metallic  com- 
pound is  forced  to  the  front,  where  it  is  caught  in  a  box. 

p.  The  principal  points  are  as  follows  in  the  analysis: 

q.  This  theme  is  written  from  notes  on  an  article  in  a 
chemical  journal  about  one  year  ago  and  is  mostly 
written  on  the  subject  as  I  remember  it. 

r.  It  thus  causes  them  to  unite  and  to  again  form  salt. 

s.  They  are  usually  about  eighty-five  feet  high  and  twenty 
feet  in  internal  diameter  at  its  widest  part,  narrowing 
somewhat  both  toward  top  and  bottom. 

t.  These  gases  are  very  hot  and  contain  enough  carbon 
monoxide  to  be  combustible  and  are  utilized  for  heating 
the  blast  admitted  through  the  tuyers  and  as  fuel  for 
other  purposes. 

u.  A  brief  outline  only  can  be  given. 

v.  Everything  is  going  along  as  smoothly  as  they  gen- 
erally do. 

w.  I  was  sent  out  on  a  job  of  building  a  three-mile  road  as 
timekeeper. 

x.  On  the  other  hand  French  retains  its  early  character- 
istics; they  have  coined  new  words  but  other  languages 
have  not  had  nearly  the  effect  on  French  that  they 
have  on  English. 

y.  Therefore  his  opinions  and  suggestions  have  been  sought 
for  by  his  employer,  all  of  which  has  aided  him  with  his 
employer. 

z.  The  book  is  a  combination  of  a  pirate  and  a  love  story. 
aa.  After  riding  on  the  Nile  from  the  first  Cataract  to 
the  second,  the  massive  temple  built  by  Rameses  II 
came  into  view, 
bb.  The  growth  of  a  person's  mind  is  like  a  sponge. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

H.  A.  Watts:  The  Composition  of  Technical  Papers. 
T.  A.  Rickard:  Technical  Writing. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ABBREVIATIONS,  AND  SYMBOLS 

The  Importance  of  Punctuation.  The  successful 
organization  of  a  sentence  involves  the  use  of 
marks  of  punctuation.  A  knowledge  of  the  rules 
of  grammar  gives  us  the  skeleton  framework  of  a 
sentence;  familiarity  with  the  principles  of  rhetoric 
enables  us  to  phrase  a  particular  meaning  effec- 
tively; and  then  an  understanding  of  the  marks  of 
punctuation  assists  us  in  the  best  grouping  of  the 
words  for  clearness.  The  essential  thought  depends 
upon  the  words  that  are  chosen,  but  often  the  clear- 
ness of  the  meaning  is  impaired  or  even  lost  by  a 
failure  to  set  off  groups  of  words  properly.  The 
marks  of  punctuation  merely  assist  the  words  to 
bring  out  the  desired  meaning;  they  should  not  be 
required  to  bear  the  burden  of  the  clearness  or  the 
accuracy  of  the  meaning  alone.  This  point  brings 
us  to  a  definition  of  punctuation,  as  follows :  Punc- 
tuation is  the  science  and  the  art  of  using  certain 
signs  or  marks  in  writing  and  in  printing  to  aid  in 
conveying  the  thought.  Punctuation  is  the  word 
that  names  the  art  of  using  the  various  marks  of 
6 


70  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

punctuation  and  is,  therefore,  broader  than  the 
term,  "marks  (or  signs)  of  punctuation."  Each 
mark  of  punctuation  has  fairly  well-defined  uses 
developed  through  the  experience  of  writers;  each 
one  contributes  something  to  the  effectiveness  of 
written  matter.  In  a  game  of  chess,  a  player's 
knowledge  of  the  possible  movements  of  the  various 
pieces  is  a  necessity,  but  his  success  in  the  game 
involves  his  good  judgment  as  to  when  to  play  or 
how  far  to  move  any  certain  piece.  Similarly  an 
effective  writer  must  know  the  proper  uses  of  the 
marks  of  punctuation,  but  even  more,  must  have 
skill  in  choosing  between  them  and  in  determining 
the  frequency  of  his  use  of  them.  He  must  under- 
stand the  assistance  these  signs  may  be  to  him  in 
making  clear  his  thought,  and  yet  must  not  be  too 
ready  to  employ  them  to  offset  faulty  sentence 
organization.  In  summary,  the  functions  of  the 
marks  of  punctuation  may  be  stated  to  be  these 
three:  (i)  to  make  clearer  the  meaning  of  sen- 
tences; (2)  to  add  emphasis  to  the  meaning  of  the 
words;  and  (3)  to  aid  in  bringing  out  the  movement 
of  a  sentence  by  showing  the  proper  grouping  of 
words. 

The  Common  Uses  of  the  Marks  of  Punctuation. 
There  is  little  variation  in  the  use  of  the  marks  of 
punctuation;  the  type  of  writing  makes  no  differ- 
ence in  the  rules,  nor  does  the  subject  matter.  The 
same  principles  of  sentence  structure  and  of  rhe- 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         71 

torical  excellence  hold  in  technical  exposition  that 
apply  in  descriptive  or  narrative  prose.  Similarly, 
to  secure  the  qualities  that  have  been  chosen  to 
characterize  exposition,  a  writer  must  understand 
the  common  uses  of  marks  of  punctuation;  these 
qualities  are  secured  not  by  chance  or  by  haphazard 
use,  but  by  having  every  instance  fit  into  the  writer's 
purpose  perfectly.  Most  of  the  marks  have  but  a 
single  or  possibly  a  twofold  use,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  comma,  colon,  and  semicolon  there 
is  not  much  room  for  a  difference  of  opinion  whether 
a  given  mark  should  or  should  not  be  used.  If  the 
context  calls  for  a  mark  with  a  particular  function, 
the  primary  determination  of  the  existence  of  the 
need  of  a  mark  settles  the  question  as  to  the  kind 
of  mark  to  be  employed. 

The  marks  of  punctuation  may  be  divided  into 
terminal  and  internal  marks.  A  brief  mention  of 
the  marks,  with  an  example  of  each,  will  be  made, 
leaving  fuller  discussion  to  any  standard  handbook 
or  grammar.  The  terminal  marks  are  three,  cor- 
responding to  the  possible  emotional  attitudes  in 
expression  of  thought;  the  period,  denoting  an 
assertive  attitude;  the  question  mark,  denoting 
an  inquisitive  or  a  doubtful  attitude;  and  the 
exclamation  point,  denoting  an  intense  feeling,  such 
as  surprise,  wonder,  anger,  etc.  Every  sentence 
has  a  terminal  mark  of  one  kind  or  another;  that 
is  involved  in  the  very  construction  of  a  sentence. 


72  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

The  use  of  a  period  is  illustrated  by  this  or  by  the 
preceding  sentence,  in  which  a  plain  assertion  is 
made.  The  use  of  a  question  mark  is  illustrated 
in  the  following  sentence  expressing  a  request  for 
information : 

How  will  the  business  situation  affect  you? 

The  question  mark  has  an  internal  use  also,  even 
in  the  sense  just  mentioned,  but  more  frequently 
to  express  doubt  or  uncertainty  as  to  the  fact  stated, 
as  for  example: 

Roger  Bacon  (12 14?-!  294)  was  the  first  Englishman  to 
write  from  the  modern  scientific  viewpoint. 

In  this  usage  the  question  mark  is  sometimes  in- 
closed in  parentheses,  particularly  if  any  sarcasm 
is  intended.  The  use  of  an  exclamation  point  is 
illustrated  by  the  following: 

He  had  a  beautifully  executed  set  of  plans  for  a  perpetual- 
motion  machine.  And  he  really  thought  it  would  work! 

The  internal  marks  of  punctuation  are:  the 
comma,  denoting  a  brief  pause;  the  semicolon,  de- 
noting an  intermediate  pause;  the  colon,  denoting 
a  long  pause;  the  dash,  denoting  an  interruption  or 
unexpected  turn  of  thought,  used  sometimes  at 
the  end  of  an  unfinished  sentence;  the  hyphen, 
denoting  the  compounding  of  syllables  in  a  word 
or  of  words  used  together;  the  apostrophe,  denoting 
the  possessive  case  or  the  omission  of  letters  in 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         73 

contractions;  the  parentheses,  denoting  matter  that 
is  interpretative  or  subordinate;  the  brackets,  de- 
noting interpolated  matter;  and  quotation  marks, 
denoting  conversation  or  matter  taken  over  from 
some  other  writer. 

The  three  marks  that  show  pause  give  the  writer 
the  greatest  difficulty,  for  the  opinions  of  people 
may  honestly  differ  about  the  necessity  for  a  pause, 
or  granting  that,  about  the  length  of  the  pause. 
From  this  point  of  view  of  pause,  the  uses  of  the 
comma  may  be  explained  under  the  following  heads : 

(1)  The  brief  pause  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound sentence,  as,  for  example : 

A  merchant  may  advertise  his  wares,  a  manufacturer  his 
product,  but  reasonable  modesty  and  his  code  of  ethics  pre- 
vent a  professional  man  from  advertising  his  skill.  (Harrington 
in  The  Value  of  English  to  the  Technical  Man.) 

(2)  The  brief  pause  between  words  in  a  series,  all 
in    the    same    grammatical    relationship,    as,    for 
example : 

Evidently  he  [the  engineer]  must  have  a  large  acquaintance 
with  such  sciences  as  surveying,  physics,  chemistry,  geology, 
metallurgy,  electricity,  applied  mechanics,  kinematics,  machine 
design,  power  generation  and  transmission,  structural  design- 
ing, and  land  and  water  transportation.  (Johnson  in  Two 
Kinds  of  Education  for  Engineers.) 

(3)  The  brief  pause  between  words  or  expressions 
that  are  in  the  appositive  construction,  as,  for 
example : 


74  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Columbus,  the  discoverer  of  America,  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  other  scientific  problems  of  his  day. 

(4)  The  brief  pause  that  precedes  and  sometimes 
also  follows  explanatory  or  supplementary  matter 
of  the  nonrestrictive  kind,  as,  for  example: 

This,  of  course,  is  well  known. 

Breadth  of  knowledge,  upon  which  sound  judgment  must 
rest,  can  be  attained  only  by  broad  training. 

"But  why,"  asks  the  practical  man,  "must  a  student  learn 
modern  languages?" 

(5)  The  brief  pause  necessary  to  group  words  cor- 
rectly, as,  for  example: 

As  she  was  going  the  same  way  he  was,  on  her  way  to  work, 
they  often  got  on  the  same  car. 

From  the  same  point  of  view  of  pause,  the  semi- 
colon duplicates  some  of  the  uses  of  the  comma,  but 
with  a  sharper  emphasis,  indicating  a  somewhat 
longer  pause.  The  uses  may  be  stated  thus:  (i) 
The  pause  between  co-ordinate  sentence  elements 
when  there  is  a  distinct  grammatical  separation  or 
thought  contrast,  as,  for  example: 

This  suggestion  has  since  been  verified;  so  that  now  the 
whole  theory  of  light  is  nothing  but  a  branch  of  the  great 
science  of  electricity.  (Ranum  in  The  Relation  of  Mathematics 
to  Engineering.} 

(2)  The  pause  between  items  in  a  series  when  long 
phrases  or  clauses  are  used,  as,  for  example: 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         75 

Try  to  find  a  chum  who  is  in  another  department;  go  to 
literary  societies;  haunt  the  library;  attend  the  available 
lectures  in  literature,  science,  and  art;  attend  the  meetings  of 
the  Science  Club;  and  in  every  way  possible,  with  a  peep  here 
and  a  word  there,  improve  to  the  utmost  these  marvelous 
opportunities  which  will  never  come  to  you  again.  (From  J. 
B.  Johnson's  Two  Kinds  of  Education  for  Engineers.) 

The  pause  indicated  by  a  colon  is  still  longer,  or 
if  not  longer  precedes  sentence  elements  that  are 
more  sharply  set  off  in  thought  relationship  than 
those  mentioned  under  the  semicolon.  The  uses 
of  the  colon  are  three:  (i)  As  a  mark  of  expectation, 
preceding  a  list  or  a  statement  that  has  been  led 
up  to,  as,  for  example,  the  sentence  given  under 
the  use  of  the  semicolon,  and  the  following: 

Students  in  the  course  in  civil  engineering  are  given  an 
opportunity  of  specializing  to  a  certain  extent,  in  three  general 
lines  of  work,  through  the  electives  offered  in  the  senior  year. 
These  lines  of  work  are :  structural  engineering,  railroad  engi- 
neering, and  municipal  engineering.  The  subjects  that  come 
under  the  latter  head  are:  sanitary,  water  supply,  and  highway 
engineering. 

(2)  As  an  intermediate  pause  uniting  main  clauses, 
as,  for  example: 

The  boy  is  coming  home:  he  will  arrive  at  three  o'clock. 
I  went  to  see  the  picture:  it  was  not  what  I  expected. 
Again  he  had  tried;    again  he  had  failed:   his  last  chance 
was  gone;  he  was  lost. 

Of  the  other  internal  marks  of  punctuation,  the 
uses  are  fairly  familiar.  Without  any  discussion,  the 
following  examples  will  show  the  correct  usage : 


76  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Dash:  These  problems — and  thus  the  educational  prepara- 
tion required  to  cope  with  them — are  practically  the  same  in 
all  walks  of  life. 

Hyphen:  A  two-year  course.    Bread-and-butter  education. 

Apostrophe:  Tis  no  small  point  to  its  credit  that  it  won. 
Fourier's  series.  Maxwell's  theory. 

Parentheses:  Sliding  gates  (Fig.  3)  are  raised  and  lowered. 
At  the  maximum  reading  (0.41  ampere)  the  leakage  was 
approximately  0.06  per  cent  on  the  entire  system. 

Brackets:  See  example  under  use  (2)  of  the  comma,  p.  73. 

Quotation  marks:  There  are  other  men  who  will  say  of  their 
chief,  "He  is  the  best  man  I  ever  worked  under." 

This  is  a  "safety  first"  precaution. 


In  addition  to  the  regular  uses  there  are  a  few 
special  uses  which  we  should  examine. 

Special  Uses  in  Technical  Writing.  As  already 
remarked,  the  signs  of  punctuation  have  no  differ- 
ent use  in  technical  writing  from  their  use  in  other 
types  of  writing;  but  there  is  probably  a  greater 
frequency  of  the  use  of  the  colon,  the  hyphen,  and 
the  period  in  abbreviations. 

This  frequency  constitutes  practically  special 
usage.  The  colon  is  a  mark  of  anticipation  or 
expectancy  and  is  used  before  a  list  or  series  of 
items.  Technical  writing  is  very  likely  to  have 
such  lists,  perhaps  giving  the  divisions  of  a  class, 
or  parts  of  a  whole,  or  factors  in  a  situation.  The 
two  following  sentences  illustrate  this  use  and  in- 
dicate the  frequency  with  which  the  colon  may  be 
found  in  technical  writing: 


i 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         77 

Engineering  covers  such  a  large  field  that  it  is  divided  into 
many  classes,  the  main  classes  being:  civil,  mining,  mechan- 
ical, electrical,  and  chemical. 

The  definition  of  the  word  engineer  is  divided  into  four 
parts:  first,  one  who  is  skilled  in  the  principles  or  practice 
of  any  branch  of  mechanical  science;  second,  one  who  has 
charge  of,  or  manages,  an  engine  or  locomotive;  third,  one  of 
an  army  corps  which  builds  bridges,  roads,  etc.,  for  military  use; 
fourth,  one  who  carries  through  a  scheme  or  enterprise. 

Another  use  of  the  colon  frequently  found  in 
technical  writing  is  its  employment  in  stating 
references,  a  use  found,  of  course,  in  literature  as 
well,  for  example,  in  giving  Scripture  references,  as 
Matt.  7  :i2  (the  Golden  Rule).  The  colon  separates 
the  larger  from  the  smaller  division — chapter  from 
verse,  volume  from  page,  paragraph  from  line, 
act  from  scene,  hour  from  minute.  Examples  of 
such  use  are: 

McClure's  Magazine  XXXIII:72.    King  Lear  I:  1:33. 
7:15  A.  M. 

The  use  of  the  hyphen  in  compound  words  has 
already  been  discussed  (p.  48).  It  indicates  a  cer- 
tain close  association  of  ideas  expressed  by  two 
words  used  together,  the  meaning  differing  from 
that  of  the  words  used  separately.  The  two  words 
are  not,  however,  so  closely  associated  that  they 
are  written  solid  as  one  word.  The  omission  of  the 
hyphen  would  affect  the  meaning,  changing  the 
first  of  the  two  words  to  a  plain  adjective,  modifying 


78  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

the  second.  A  use  still  more  distinctive  of  tech- 
nical writing  is  the  use  in  compound  technical 
adjectives;  that  is,  with  two  words  used  together 
as  an  adjective  in  a  technical  sense.  The  words 
so  used  may  ordinarily  be  nouns,  but  in  this  com- 
bination have  the  force  of  a  single  adjective.  Not 
infrequently  two  or  more  pairs  of  such  adjectives 
are  used  with  a  noun.  The  following  examples 
are  taken  from  a  list  of  equipment : 

gas-heated  furnaces. 

i2$-horsepower  Westinghouse  generator. 
i6-horsepower  Burke  230-volt  shunt  motor, 
a  General  Electric  3-phase,  22o-volt,  Co-cycle  alternator. 
a  4o-horsepower  gasoline  automobile  engine  of  the  four- 
cylinder,  single-acting,  four-cycle,  water-cooled  type. 

Almost  every  page  of  a  technical  journal  will  show 
instances  of  the  hyphen  in  compound  adjectives. 
The  following  detached  sentences  are  examples : 

Before  the  new  power  plant  was  built,  power  requirements 
of  the  Hershey  properties  were  supplied  by  a  steam-engine- 
driven  plant,  operating  in  conjunction  with  a  Diesel-engine 
installation. 

Where  natural  draught  is  used,  the  boiler-room  basement  is 
an  empty  space. 

There  are  a  few  instances  of  cast-iron  economizers  failing 
under  high-pressure  tests,  and  it  is  now  recommended  by 
manufacturers  that  preliminary  tests  be  kept  well  within  the 
elastic  limit  of  the  economizer  material. 

The  other  mark  of  punctuation  that  is  used  ex- 
tensively rather  than  differently  in  technical  writing 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.          79 

is  the  period  in  abbreviations.  Before  discussing 
this  in  detail,  we  should  note  that  contractions 
are  distinguished  from  abbreviations  in  that  an 
apostrophe  rather  than  a  period  is  used  to  show 
that  the  expression  is  a  shortened  form.  In  either, 
one  or  more  letters,  usually  including  a  vowel, 
has  been  omitted  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the 
number  of  syllables.  The  following  are  common 
forms  of  contractions : 

I'm  for  I  am.  I've  for  I  have. 

can't  for  cannot.  o'clock  for  of  the  clock. 

ne'er  for  never.  rec'd  for  received. 

Contractions  are  not  to  be  used  in  formal  writing, 
with  a  few  exceptions  like  o'clock,  which  has  estab- 
lished itself;  some  are  used  in  poetry  for  the  sake 
of  metrical  needs,  and  they  are  frequent  in  colloquial 
writing. 

Punctuation  in  Headings.  In  posters,  display 
advertisements,  legends  on  drawings,  title-pages, 
and  headings,  the  marks  of  punctuation  are  usually 
omitted,  except  periods,  apostrophes,  and  quota- 
tion marks.  The  purposes  usually  secured  by 
marks  of  punctuation  are  here  accomplished  by 
word  grouping  into  lines  and  by -spacing.  Two  con- 
siderations determine  the  grouping:  (i)  the  thought 
to  be  brought  out,  care  being  exercised  that  each 
line  stand  more  or  less  as  a  unit  in  the  phrasing; 
and  (2)  the  quality  of  neatness  of  arrangement,  an 


8o  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

attempt  being  made  to  have  a  symmetrical  or  bal- 
anced form.  The  title-page  of  almost  any  book, 
this  one,  for  example,  will  furnish  a  case  of  arrange- 
ment by  grouping  which  omits  marks  of  punctua- 
tion which  would  be  necessary  under  straight  prose 
conditions.  The  following  legend  from  a  map 
will  illustrate  the  omission  of  commas  that  would 
be  necessary  if  written  in  straight  prose : 

TOPOGRAPHICAL  MAP 

OF 

J.  J.  WHITACRE  PROPERTY 

WAYNESBURG  OHIO. 

DEPARTMENT  OP  CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

CASE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 

FEBRUARY  26  1921 

Scale  i"-4oo' 

Examples  of  display  advertisements  may  be  found 
in  any  issue  of  a  technical  magazine. 

The  Use  of  Abbreviations.  An  abbreviation  is  a 
shortened  form  of  a  word,  the  letters  preserved 
being  written  consecutively  in  order,  without  an 
apostrophe,  but  with  a  period.  The  omitted  letters 
may  be  a  block  anywhere  following  the  initial 
letter,  or  may  be  separate  or  scattered  letters  or 
groups  of  letters.  The  tendency  to  use  abbrevia- 
tions in  technical  writing  is  increasing.  The  main 
objection  to  the  use  of  abbreviations,  however,  is 


i 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         81 

not  their  increasing  number,  but  rather  the  lack 
of  uniformity  or  standard  in  their  use.  Each  writer 
is  more  or  less  a  law  unto  himself.  Many  textbooks 
that  employ  numerous  abbreviations  have  to  print 
a  key  for  those  used,  because,  either  in  range  or  in 
form,  the  book  does  not  keep  to  established  usage, 
such  as  would  be  found  in  a  dictionary  list.  And 
when  we  realize  the  extent  to  which  a  single  ab- 
breviation may  be  used,  we  understand  the  con- 
fusion likely  to  result  without  a  key.  For  instance, 
the  single  letter  "m,"  both  capital  and  small  letter, 
is  listed  in  the  dictionary  as  the  proper  abbrevia- 
tion for  any  one  of  forty-eight  different  words. 
This  fact  simply  means  that  any  writer  may  use 
any  abbreviation  he  pleases;  there  are  no  rules. 
Dictionary  lists  are  merely  compendiums  of  indi- 
vidual usage.  It  is  true  that  the  context  of  an 
abbreviation  will  eliminate  a  large  percentage  of 
the  possibilities,  but  there  is  still  confusion  and  lack 
of  uniformity  in  the  practice  of  writers.  An  example 
of  the  excessive  and  unauthorized  employment  of 
abbreviations,  used  simply  in  an  attempt  to  save 
space,  is  the  following,  taken  from  the  classified 
advertisements  of  a  daily  newspaper: 

FOR  RENT— Beaut,  furn.  It.  hskpg.  rms.;  priv.  fam.;  mod. 
conv.,  elec.  Its.,  h.w.  ht.    Reas. 

Such  an  example  defeats  the  real  purpose  of  ab- 
breviations, which  is  to  save  not  merely  space  and 


82  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

thereby  expense,  but  also  the  time  of  the  reader; 
this  specimen  becomes  a  puzzle  rather  than  an 
advertisement.  Yet  usage  sanctions  many  extreme 
forms  devised  by  fertile  imaginations.  Books  of 
reference  have  done  something  toward  standard- 
izing abbreviations,  but  there  is  no  real  way  to 
speak  with  authority  for  all  classes  of  writers. 
The  Post  Office  Department  has  prescribed  the 
accepted  abbreviations  for  state  names,  etc.,  but 
is  as  frequently  not  followed  as  followed  in  the 
case  of  certain  of  them,  where  the  popular  desire 
for  short  forms  prevails,  for  example,  in  the  use  of 
O.  for  Ohio. 

There  are  no  rules  for  the  construction  of  ab- 
breviations, any  more  than  for  their  use.  For 
instance  note  the  following  common  abbreviations, 
each  one  illustrating  a  different  plan  in  the  omission 
of  letters: 

coll.  for  college.  Thos.  for  Thomas, 

bldg.  for  buUding.  N.  Y.  for  New  York. 

Suggested  Rules  for  Standardization  of  Abbrevia- 
tions. The  national  engineering  societies,  realizing 
the  disadvantage  of  a  lack  of  standardization,  in 
1910  appointed  members  of  a  joint  committee  to 
devise  some  standard  rules.  The  committee  met 
and  formulated  fourteen  rules.  To  most  of  these 
approval  and  adoption  have  been  accorded,  to 
others,  especially  to  some  recommended  forms, 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         83 

sharp  exception  has  been  taken.  Widespread  habits 
are  hard  to  overcome.  An  attempt  is  here  made 
to  suggest  rules,  based  in  part  upon  the  rules  of 
the  joint  committee  referred  to,  to  apply  to  the 
use  of  abbreviations  in  technical  prose.  It  is 
understood  that  no  objection  would  be  made  to 
some  difference  in  practice  in  titles,  legends,  head- 
ings, advertisements,  formulas,  etc. 

i.  Use  a  period  after  each  abbreviation.  The 
abbreviation  may  be  a  single  expression  and  must 
be  distinguished  from  a  contracted  form  with  an 
apostrophe.  It  may  be  a  form  compounded  by 
means  of  a  hyphen,  in  which  case  only  one  period 
is  used  after  both  forms,  the  hyphen  being  con- 
sidered to  make  a  single  expression  of  the  combina- 
tion. Some  words  formerly  written  separately,  but 
now  commonly  as  one  word,  will  be  discussed  in  the 
next  paragraph.  Abbreviated  forms  have  clung 
to  the  original  method  of  writing  the  words. 
Examples  are: 

1.  h.  p.,    indicated  horsepower, 
sq.  ft.,     square  feet. 

F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
kw-hr.,    kilowatt-hour. 

2.  Use  small  letters  for  abbreviations,  except  for 
proper  nouns.    Capitals  are  unnecessary  for  com- 
mon nouns,  although  frequently  used.     If  an  ex- 
pression has  some  common  and  some  proper  nouns, 


84  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

there  is  no  reason  in  writing  all  initials  the  same 
way.    The  following  are  correct* 

B.  t.  u.,     British  thermal  unit. 

U.  S.  gal.,  United  States  gallon. 

a.  c.,          alternating  current. 

d.  c.,          direct  current. 

a.  m.,         morning  (ante  meridiem). 

p.  m.,        afternoon  (post  meridiem). 

3.  Use  all  abbreviations  in  the  singular.     The 
chief  reason  for  this  rule  is  to  avoid  two  forms  of 
an  abbreviation  for  essentially  the  same  word.  The 
context  will  easily  determine  the  reading  of  the 
abbreviation;  there  is  now  no  confusion  in  telling 
whether  ft.  or  min.  is  singular  or  plural.     Apply 
this  usage  consistently,  as  the  following  will  show. 

15  in.        10  oz.  5  gal.  2  bbl.  30  cc. 

There  are  a  few  special  forms  of  the  plural,  relics 
of  Latin  influence : 

ff .  for  following.  11.  for  lines. 

pp.  for  pages.  LL.  for  Laws  (in  degrees). 

FF.  for  Brethren  (Fratres). 

4.  Do  not   abbreviate  abstract  or  descriptive 
words.    Such  words  generally  are  very  important 
in  restricting  the  scope  of  the  noun  with  which 
they  are  used,  and  if  abbreviated  to  a  single  letter 
may  be  misunderstood  easily.    There  are,  however, 
certain  exceptions  that  have  established  themselves 
by  usage,  viz.: 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         85 

i.  h.  p.  for  indicated  horsepower. 
e.  m.  f.  for  electromotive  force. 
e.  h.  p.  for  electric  horsepower, 
b.  h.  p.  for  brake  horsepower, 
m.  m.  f.  for  magnetomotive  force. 

Other  expressions,  such  as  the  following,  should 
not  be  abbreviated :  boiler  horsepower,  high-pressure 
cylinder. 

5.  When    numerals    are    used    with    nouns    of 
measure  or  other  designation,  the  noun  may  be 
abbreviated,  but  not   otherwise.      The   following 
differences  will  be  clear: 

capacity  of  25  hp.,  but    the  horsepower  is  25. 

Fig.  2,  but    illustrated  by  10  figures. 
30  lb.,  but    several  pounds. 

6.  Avoid  the  use  of  an  abbreviation  at  the  end 
of  a  sentence,  and  particularly  at  the  end  of  a 
paragraph.     This  cannot  always  be  done  conven- 
iently, an  abbreviation  like  etc.  frequently  conclud- 
ing a  list  and  coming  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.     If 
an  abbreviation  does  come  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
the  period  denoting  the  abbreviation  will  do  double 
duty  as  the  sentence  stop  also.    The  avoidance  of 
such  double  duty  is  the  reason  for  the  rule.    Write 
out  words  that  come  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  even 
though  elsewhere  they  would  be  abbreviated — e.  g.: 

...  at  a  pressure  of  30  lb.  per  square  inch. 

7.  Use  decimals  so  far  as  possible  in  place  of 
fractions.     The  indeterminate  fractions  may  best 


86  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

be  expressed  in  fractional  form,  rather  than  to 
string  out  decimal  places;  but  the  decimal  form  is 
to  be  preferred.  The  following  will  illustrate: 

1.25,    2.5,   but  3K,    i%- 

Either  kind  may  be  written  on  a  typewriter,  though 
the  decimal  form  is  more  compact  and  easier  to  read. 

8.  In  all  decimal  numbers  having  no  units,  put 
a  cipher  before  the  decimal  point.     This  rule  pre- 
vents unintentional  omission.    Examples  are: 

0.15.    $0.67. 

9.  Use  words  in  place  of  characters  or  symbols, 
especially  when  such  signs  are  used  for  several 
meanings.    This  rule  is  aimed  to  prevent  misinter- 
pretation of  the  sign;    a  sign  will  stand  for  one 
meaning  and  only  one.    For  example,  write: 

12  by  20  ft.  (do  not  use  x  for  "by"). 

5  min.  12  sec.  (not  5'  12")  this  is  when  periods  of  time  are 
meant. 

25  ft.  4  in.  (not  25'  4"). 

But  17°  19'  42"  is  correct,  indicating  degrees  of  circular 
measurement,  such  as  latitude  or  longitude. 

10.  Follow  usage  in  abbreviations  of  firm  names. 
If  you  do  not  know  the  firm's  usage,  do  not  abbrevi- 
ate.   For  example,  the  following  are  the  ways  the 
firms  themselves  abbreviate  their  names,  some  with 
the  ampersand  and  some  without : 

Clemson  Bros.,  Inc.         R.  Wallace  &  Sons  Mfg.  Co. 
Bauer  and  Black.  The  A.  C.  Gilbert  Co. 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         87 

Changes  of  Form.  In  several  instances  there  have 
been  changes  of  usage  in  abbreviations;  there  are 
likely  to  be  more.  For  example,  the  word  horse- 
power was  commonly  abbreviated  to  h.p.,  now  it 
is  usually  hp.,  or  the  symbol  IP.  The  word  was 
formerly  written  as  two  separate  words,  then  with 
a  hyphen  between  the  two  words,  and  now  com- 
monly as  one  word.  This  evolution  accounts  for 
the  changes  in  the  form  of  the  abbreviation.  But 
oddly  enough,  the  word  "railroad"  does  not  show 
a  parallel  development  in  the  abbreviation,  although 
it  does  in  the  compounding  of  the  word  itself.  The 
accepted  form  of  the  abbreviation  is  still  R.R., 
of  course,  usually  written  with  capitals  in  the  name 
of  a  particular  railroad;  but  the  word  is  a  single 
word  always.  The  word  ' '  candlepower ' '  has  under- 
gone a  change  similar  to  that  in  the  word  horse- 
power. Changes  in  the  official  abbreviations  of 
some  of  the  states  have  been  made,  the  most  recent 
one  being  the  adoption  of  Calif,  instead  of  Cal.  for 
California.  There  is  disagreement  whether  some 
words  should  ever  be  abbreviated ;  for  example,  the 
short  words,  mile,  month,  ohm,  ton,  volt,  watt,  and 
year,  and  the  names  of  these  states:  Idaho,  Iowa, 
Maine,  Ohio,  and  Utah.  The  best  opinion  is  against 
abbreviations  of  any  of  these  words.  In  the  case 
of  some  other  words  there  is  disagreement  over  the 
form  of  the  abbreviation,  although  such  disagree- 
ment is  gradually  being  overcome.  In  deciding 


88  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

questions  that  arise  over  abbreviations,  either  their 
form  or  their  use,  one  must  go  back  to  the  primary 
interpretation  of  the  function  of  abbreviations, 
which  is  economy  of  space  together  with  convenience 
to  the  reader.  The  gain  in  space  over  a  four-  or 
five-letter  word  is  not  usually  sufficient  to  warrant 
the  abbreviation;  or  to  put  the  matter  in  another 
way,  the  repeated  use  of  a  single  letter  or  of  two 
letters  as  an  abbreviation  for  several  different  ex- 
pressions is  so  confusing  as  to  warrant  a  decision 
against  such  use.  The  convenience  of  abbreviations 
in  handling  routine  or  statistical  matter,  where  of 
necessity  the  principal  words  must  be  often  re- 
peated, is  obvious,  but  when  the  convenience  of  the 
writer  overshadows  that  of  the  reader,  it  is  time  to 
cease  using  abbreviations. 

The  Use  of  Symbols.  A  symbol  is  a  letter  or  com- 
bination of  letters,  a  sign,  or  a  character,  which 
represents  a  word  or  a  thought.  In  one  sense, 
numbers  are  symbols ;  the  letters  in  algebra,  stand- 
ing for  numbers,  are  certainly  symbols.  A  symbol 
may  be  an  abbreviation.  The  purpose  is  the  same 
as  that  of  abbreviations,  but  the  field  of  their  use 
is  more  commonly  confined  to  formulas,  examples, 
or  diagrams.  Examples  of  symbols  are: 

C  for  carbon,  and  similarly  the  designations  of  the  other 
chemical  elements,  written  without  a  period. 
$  for  dollars. 
%  for  per  cent. 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         89 

f  for  paragraph. 

Plus,  minus,  multiplication,  and  division  signs. 

$  for  cent. 

V~  for  the  root  of  a  number. 

Technical  writing  employs  a  great  number  of  such 
symbols,  especially  textbooks  in  mathematics,  chem- 
istry, mechanics,  or  electricity.  Almost  every 
department  of  activity  has  its  set  of  symbols  or 
signs — e.  g.,  music,  drawing,  architecture,  medicine, 
and  finance.  A  student  in  any  subject  has  to  be- 
come familiar  with  the  common  symbols  used; 
a  reader  in  a  subject  will  usually  find  a  key  to 
the  use  of  the  symbols  printed  in  the  textbooks  of 
the  subject.  It  is  an  interesting  study  to  trace  the 
reason  for  the  origin  or  for  the  form  of  the  symbols 
employed.  The  common  use  of  the  typewriter  is 
another  reason  against  using  symbols,  particularly 
unusual  ones,  and  also  superscripts  and  subscripts 
as  variations  of  symbols.  Exponents  are,  however, 
unavoidable  in  mathematics  and  mechanics.  For 
the  same  reason  the  use  of  the  Greek  alphabet  is 
undesirable. 

A  branch  of  work  closely  related  to  the  writing 
of  English  is  that  of  typesetting;  its  set  of  symbols 
ought  to  be  familiar  to  every  person  who  will  ever 
have  anything  to  do  with  the  preparation  of  copy 
for  the  printer.  The  use  of  these  symbols  will  be 
discussed  in  the  next  paragraph. 

The  Correction  of  Proof.    Typesetting  used  to 


90  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

be  done  entirely  by  hand;  now  it  is  done  by  the 
linotype  machine  in  all  big  establishments,  where 
speed  is  a  requisite.  The  hand  work  offers  more 
opportunities  for  error  than  the  machine  work.  The 
correction  of  errors,  however,  can  be  made  more 
economically  and  more  specifically  in  hand  than 
in  machine  work,  because  each  error  can  be  reached 
by  itself  in  hand  work,  but  only  in  lines  in  machine 
work.  After  the  copy  is  first  set  up,  an  impression 
of  the  type  is  taken  on  rough  paper.  This  is  called 
the  galley  proof,  because  the  type  is  placed  in  a 
long  frame,  known  as  a  galley,  which  does  not 
indicate  the  column  lengths  at  all.  An  editor  and, 
frequently,  the  author  goes  over  this  galley  proof, 
and  indicates  by  symbols  the  corrections  to  be 
made.  The  compositor  makes  these  corrections 
and  takes  another  proof;  when  correct,  the  type 
is  transferred  from  the  galley  to  the  column  or 
page  forms.  The  following  are  the  symbols  used 
for  marking  the  common  errors : 

8  The  small  Greek  letter  delta,  the  initial  letter  of  the 
Greek  verb,  imperative,  dele,  meaning:   take  out,  omit. 

#  Insert  a  space. 

O  Take  out  a  space,  draw  together. 

[  ]  Draw  over  to  the  left  or  the  right  for  alignment. 

^  Raise  a  type. 

•— -  Lower  a  type. 

9  Put  a  type  right  side  up. 

1.  c.  Use  lower  case,  or  small  letter. 

caps.    Use  large  capital  letters;  also  indicated  by  three 
lines  underscored. 


PUNCTUATION  MARKS,  ETC.         91 

s.  c.  Use  small  capital  letters;  also  indicated  by  two  lines 
underscored. 

ital.    Use  italics;  also  indicated  by  a  single  line  underscored. 

w.  f.  Change  type  to  another  style  or  font  to  make  it  like 
the  rest. 

?    Questions  the  truth  or  the  correctness  of  the  copy. 


EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  VI 

1.  Clip  from  a  newspaper  an  example  of  each  mark  of 
punctuation;  test  its  correctness. 

2.  Write  original  sentences  to  illustrate  the  uses  of  the  marks 
of  punctuation. 

3.  In  an  article  in  a  magazine  mark  all  instances  of  the  use 
of  the  colon;  what  is  the  particular  function  of  each  use? 

4.  Mark  all  abbreviations  used  in  an  article  in  a  magazine; 
are  they  the  usual  forms  of  abbreviation  of  the  terms? 

5.  Illustrate  each  of  the  rules  given  in  the  text  with  other 
examples. 

6.  Find  examples  of  abbreviations  in  advertisements. 

7.  Note  any  textbook  that  you  have  that  has  a  key  to  its 
own  abbreviations,  and  compare  the  list  with  that  in  the 
dictionary. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  symbols  that  you  have  to  use  in  your 
other  studies. 

9.  Secure  some  galley  proof  from  a  printer  and  correct  it, 
using  the  signs  intended  for  proof  reading. 

10.  Make  a  list  of  the  instances  of  the  compound  technical 
adjectives  with  hyphens,  found  in  a  magazine  article. 

11.  Criticize  the  following  sentences  for  punctuation: 

a.  Mr.  Barrie's  style  of  writing  is  good,  it  is  not  tedious. 

b.  In  grading  the  instructor  takes  into  consideration  three 
factors,  the  manner  of  approaching  the  apparatus,  the 
form  shown  in  performing  the  exercise,  and  the  manner 
of  dismounting. 

c.  It  consists  of  apparatus  work,  on  the  horses,  bucks,  rings 
and  bars. 


92  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

d.  In  a  college  like  ours  editorials  like  the  one  in  last 
weeks  issue  on  the  problems  ahead  are  very  good. 

e.  I  therefore  recommend  that  the  following  system  be 
instituted:  First,  that  every  student  from  each  class 
should  be  thoroughly  examined  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  each  term,  second  that  exercises  should  be  pre- 
scribed to  suit  the  needs  of  the  student,  and  third  that 
more  basketball  games  should  be  played  in  order  that 
each  student  become  more  actively  interested  in  the 
sport  and  thereby  help  to  furnish  material  for  the 
varsity. 

f .  Although  these  men  have  all  left  those  who  remain  still 
have  the  reputation  which  these  men  helped  to  make 
to  live  down. 

g.  The  two  methods  of  exposition  namely  definition  and 
analysis  were  studied. 

h.  Examples  of  modern  languages  are  French,  German, 

Spanish,  English  etc. 
i.   Another  bad  phase  is  the  impression  it  conveys  to  new 

men  in  school;  suppose  a  new  man  should  read  this 

burlesque  on  college  life,  it  would  at  once  impress  him 

unfavorably. 
j.  The  "Journal  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical 

Engineering"  is  from  the  students  viewpoint  one  of 

the  best  periodicals  in  the  school  library. 
k.  The  stamps  are  grouped  in  sets  of  odd  numbers,  either 

three  five  or  even  more  making  a  unit. 
1.   From  this  point  of  view  there  are  three  substances  to 

be  considered;  the  surface  the  priming  and  the  pigments. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

H.  Frost:  Good  Engineering  Literature. 

W.  0.  Shepherd:  Handbook  of  English  for  Engineers. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  METHODS  OF  ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL 

Analysis  as  a  Method  of  Exposition.  The  two 
methods  of  exposition  were  stated  to  be  definition 
and  analysis.  We  have  now  followed  the  applica- 
tion of  definition  to  the  meanings  of  words,  the 
historical  influences  of  our  language,  and  the  forms 
of  expansion  in  our  vocabulary;  we  have  also  seen 
how  important  the  proper  organization  of  a  sen- 
tence is  to  secure  the  essential  qualities  of  expository 
writing,  and  how  the  effectiveness  of  sentences  often 
depends  upon  the  use  of  marks  of  punctuation  and 
abbreviations.  Now  we  turn  to  the  second  great 
method  of  exposition,  known  as  analysis.  A  formal 
definition  of  analysis  is:  the  art  of  separating  a 
whole  into  its  component  parts  on  the  basis  of  the 
working  principles  involved.  Literally,  it  means  a 
"loosening  up,"  the  opposite  of  synthesis,  which 
is  a  "putting  together."  The  word  is  used  in  many 
subjects — e.  g.,  chemistry  and  mathematics;  when 
applied  to  literature  it  is  the  careful  examination 
pf  the  written  material  to  find  the  way  in  which 


94  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

the  thought  is  built  up.  A  study  of  the  methods 
of  analysis  should  give  us  greater  ability  in  the 
use  of  the  methods  of  synthesis;  that  is,  we  may 
learn  how  to  write  by  examining  the  writing  of 
others.  This  chapter  will  take  up  the  various 
methods  of  analysis,  concluding  with  some  prin- 
ciples for  the  organization  of  thought  in  one's  own 
writing. 

The  Kinds  of  Written  Material  to  be  Studied.  Be- 
fore we  attempt  to  apply  the  principles  and  methods 
of  analysis,  we  may  first  ask,  what  kind  of  writing 
is  the  scientist  called  upon  to  do?  We  recognize, 
of  course,  that  he  may  do  any  kind,  including  verse 
or  novels,  such  as  F.  Hopkinson  Smith  and  Dr. 
S.  Weir  Mitchell,  both  eminent  scientists,  wrote. 
But  we  shall  limit  ourselves  to  those  forms  of 
writing  that  are  naturally  associated  with  the  pro- 
fessional work  of  a  technical  man,  especially  an 
engineer.  The  answer  to  our  question  will  then 
include:  business  letters,  routine  reports,  special 
reports,  specifications,  news  items  for  daily  news- 
papers or  trade  journals,  reviews  of  books  or  of 
addresses,  advertisements,  editorials,  articles  for 
magazines,  essays,  addresses,  and  books.  Prac- 
tically all  of  these  are  examples  of  expository  writ- 
ing, or  embody  the  principles  of  exposition.  We 
shall  group  them  in  the  later  chapters  for  discussion 
in  detail,  after  we  study  here  the  forms  of  analyzing 
what  others  have  written.  In  this  way  we  shall 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL   95 

learn  how  others  have  organized  their  material  and 
presented  it  to  readers. 

The  names  given  to  the  methods  of  analyzing 
the  thought  of  others  that  has  been  put  into  writing 
are:  translation,  paraphrase,  summary,  review, 
outline,  and  brief.  In  using  any  of  these  we  are 
trying  to  state  in  our  own  words  what  somebody 
else  has  written,  and  maybe  to  comment  upon  it. 
We  wish  primarily  to  set  forth  the  thought  of 
another  person  with  an  explanation  of  it.  We  will 
take  up  each  method  in  order,  with  examples. 

The  Translation.  Translation  almost  always  in- 
volves the  use  of  a  second  language,  although  the 
dictionary  meaning  allows  two  distinct  styles  or 
types  of  a  single  language  in  speaking  of  the  method. 
With  the  former  meaning  in  mind,  translation  may 
be  dismissed  rather  briefly  here.  It  may  be  noted, 
however,  that  to  translate  a  passage  from  one 
language  into  another  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
two  tongues.  The  knowledge  of  one  may  be  very 
limited,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  a  student  in 
school.  The  extent  of  the  vocabulary  grows  with 
the  repeated  efforts  at  translation;  in  fact,  the 
size  of  the  vocabulary  in  each  tongue  grows  with 
the  study.  When  the  translation  is  from  some  other 
language  into  English,  the  ability  to  use  clear  and 
accurate,  and  at  the  same  time  idiomatic  English 
is  taxed  in  a  very  healthful  way.  Most  student 
translations  are  too  literal  and  too  stiff  or  formal. 


96  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

The  aim  should  be  to  employ  the  very  best  English 
possible  to  convey  the  thought  of  the  original. 
Here,  then,  is  excellent  training  in  those  funda- 
mental qualities  of  exposition  that  we  have  discussed 
in  a  previous  chapter.  Here,  also,  is  an  argument 
for  the  knowledge  of  some  other  language  than  one's 
native  tongue;  such  knowledge  helps  us  to  know 
our  own  language  better,  and  from  an  angle  that 
we  can  get  in  no  other  way.  The  task  of  translating 
is,  however,  the  task  of  another  department  than 
the  Department  of  English,  and  so  we  will  not 
discuss  its  methods  further. 

The  Paraphrase.  Paraphrasing  has  been  used 
rather  seldom  in  modern  days,  but  it  has  splendid 
advantages  as  a  means  of  training  in  language 
construction.  The  word  means  an  alternative 
statement,  the  saying  of  a  thought  in  parallel  words. 
It  is  an  attempted  explanation  of  an  idea  with  an 
avoidance  of  the  words  of  the  original.  Inasmuch 
as  it  is  an  explanation  it  comes  clearly  under  the 
process  of  exposition.  The  most  common  use  of 
the  paraphrase  is  the  rendering  of  a  thought  ex- 
pressed in  poetic  form,  into  a  prose  form,  which  by 
avoiding  rhyme  and  meter  can  adopt  the  normal 
sentence  order  and  a  simple  vocabulary.  Para- 
phrasing is  not  limited  to  the  changing  of  poetry 
into  equivalent  prose ;  it  may  be  applied  to  render- 
ing a  scientific,  technical  writing  into  a  nontech- 
nical, popular  account,  a  philosophical  work  into 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL   97 

a  simple  style,  or  an  abstract  into  a  concrete  dis- 
cussion. The  grammatical  constructions  of  the 
original  need  not  be  preserved — complex  sentences 
may  be  broken  up  into  simple  participles,  and  adjec- 
tives may  become  phrases  or  clauses,  and  infinitives 
may  be  made  over  into  indicative  verbs.  There  are, 
however,  two  main  points  that  should  be  observed 
in  paraphrasing:  (i)  the  paraphrase  must  be  a  real 
explanation  of  the  thought  of  the  original;  and 
(2)  the  paraphrase  must  catch  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  point  of  view  and  the  spirit  of  the  original. 

The  Summary.  Summarizing  in  a  most  useful 
form  of  analysis.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  a  process 
of  giving  the  substance  bu.t  not  the  details  of  the 
thought  of  a  piece  of  writing  or  address.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  condensation  of  thought.  It  should,  how- 
ever, keep  close  to  the  original  in  both  the  quality 
and  the  sequence  of  the  thought.  Negatively 
stated,  the  summary  is  never  a  mere  table  of  con- 
tents, or  a  statement  of  the  personal  opinions  of 
the  summarizer.  Essential  points  to  be  observed 
are  these:  (i)  the  summary  must  give  the  central 
idea  of  the  original,  omitting  all  appositional  ma- 
terial, and  must  convey  the  main  thought  truth- 
fully; (2)  the  summary  must  preserve  the  propor- 
tions of  the  original,  subordinating  all  its  secondary 
elements,  if  they  are  given  at  all.  A  summary 
does  not  go  into  causes  or  reasons,  but  rather  states 
results  and  conclusions.  The  summary  is  also 


98  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

called  a  precis  (a  French  word),  or  an  abstract,  or  a 
resume.  An  account  in  a  morning  paper  of  a  lec- 
ture, in  so  far  as  it  tells  what  the  lecturer  said,  is  an 
example  of  a  summary.  A  better  example,  because 
it  avoids  the  journalistic  style,  which  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  X,  is  the  following  paragraph 
from  the  Scientific  American  Monthly  for  May  1921, 
condensing  an  article  that  appeared  in  another 
magazine : 

DISCOLORATION  OF  METAL 

The  Houghton  Industrial  Digest  for  February  discusses  sun- 
light as  the  cause  of  discoloration  of  polished  metal  parts.  An 
inquirer  states  that  three  years  ago  a  new  mill  was  erected 
and  equipped  with  expensive  machinery  and  special  pride 
was  taken  in  keeping  bright  parts  polished  and  free  from 
rust.  They  were  polished  with  waste  and  rubbed  with  lubri- 
cant oil,  but  after  a  time  took  on  a  brownish  color  which, 
while  it  did  not  resemble  rust,  could  not  be  removed.  Exami- 
nation of  the  machinery  showed  that  most  of  the  discoloration 
was  to  be  found  upon  metal  parts  exposed  directly  to  the  light, 
and  where  direct  rays  of  the  sun  could  strike  the  metal  the 
spots  were  darkest.  Bright  parts  in  semi  or  complete  darkness 
were  unaffected  and  the  conclusion  is  inevitable  that  the  brown 
coloration  in  question  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  sunlight 
on  the  lubricant  oils  used  in  the  effort  to  prevent  rust.  It  is 
probable  that  the  action  of  light  upon  these  hydrocarbons 
caused  a  deposition  of  carbon  and  a  great  liberation  of  carbon. 
It  is  also  well  known  that  various  metals  have  affinity  for  carbon 
so  that  if  the  hydrocarbon  is  affected  by  the  light  the  carbon 
deposits  in  the  pores  of  the  metal  give  a  brownish  stain. 

The  Review.    The  review  does  what  the  summary 
should  not  do — convey  the  opinions  of  the  writer. 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL   99 

It  may,  and  usually  does,  include  a  summary,  but 
it  goes  on  to  add  comment.  Under  any  conditions 
it  must  give  the  meaning  of  the  writer  of  the  original 
and  make  it  quite  clear  to  the  reader.  An  interpre- 
tation logically  precedes  a  criticism  and,  therefore, 
the  position  of  the  author  of  the  original  is  first 
stated  and  then  discussed.  Underlying  the  review 
is  first  a  careful  analysis  of  the  thought  and  a 
digest  of  the  whole  material.  A  person  cannot  com- 
ment intelligently  upon  some  book  or  article  with 
whose  contents  he  is  not  familiar  at  first  hand. 
The  thought  must  go  through  the  medium  of  his 
own  mind  and  personality.  The  comment  he  makes 
may  be  favorable  or  unfavorable — the  word  review, 
and  also  the  word  criticism,  in  their  true  use  are 
nonpartisan,  or,  better,  are  simply  interpretative. 
What  has  been  said  about  the  personality  of  the 
reviewer  suggests  another  point — that  there  is  an 
inevitable  standard  of  evaluation  either  expressed 
or  implied  in  every  review,  that  involves  the  quali- 
fications and  the  purpose  of  the  reviewer.  A  per- 
son is  qualified  by  temperament  and  by  experience 
to  review  some  kinds  of  writing  better  than  he  is 
others.  The  value  of  a  review  then  depends  to 
no  small  extent  upon  the  qualifications  of  the  re- 
viewer, a  matter  which  ought  to  be  known  at  least 
approximately. 

Reviews  are  not  limited  in  range  of  subject;  they 
may  be  of  projects,  books,  lectures,  personalities, 


ioo  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

events,  experiences,  etc.  The  preparation  of  re- 
views is  excellent  trairing  for  one's  interpretative 
and  critical  faculties,  and  also  for  one's  standard 
of  values  in  the  subject  at  hand. 

Good  examples  of  short  book  reviews  are  given 
here,  both  clipped  from  the  Cleveland  Plain  Dealer: 

A  valuable  work,  the  last  book  from  the  pen  of  the  late 
James  C.  Fernald,  author  of  many  volumes  of  enduring  value, 
associate  editor  of  the  Standard  dictionary,  is  Historic  English, 
a  resume  of  the  history  of  the  English  people  as  seen  in  the 
development  of  their  language.  Carefully  selected  master- 
pieces of  English  literature  are  given  in  the  volume,  choice 
specimens  that  illustrate  the  progress  of  both  people  and 
language.  It  is  stated  that  Dr.  Fernald  took  a  very  deep 
interest  in  this  work,  giving  to  it  fully  the  same  care  and 
study  and  perfection  of  construction  that  his  earlier  volumes 
received,  and  making  it  a  fitting  climax  to  his  long  and  notable 
literary  career. — Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co.,  New  York. 

An  unusually  comprehensive  work  is  The  Master  Letter 
Writer,  which  includes  in  its  contents  500  model  business 
letters,  the  author  being  E.  B.  Davison,  familiarly  known  as 
"Ad-Man  Davison."  Ad-Man  Davison  has  evolved  what  he 
calls  "the  new  science  of  successful  letter-writing,"  and  his 
book  has  asserted  its  value  by  promptly  demanding  a  second 
edition.  Mr.  Davison  is  thorough  in  his  teachings  and  happy 
in  his  illustrations,  and  his  forms  are  direct  and  easily  under- 
stood.— Opportunity  Press,  New  York. 

Note  the  difference  in  the  treatment  from  that  found 
in  the  summary  on  page  98.  The  opinion  of  the 
reviewer  is  expressed,  in  both  of  these  cases, 
favorably.  Literature  is,  of  course,  filled  with 
excellent  reviews;  for  example,  Macaulay's  essays 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL     101 

are  in  form  book  reviews;   several  of  Stevenson's 
essays  are  reviews  of  current  movements  or  ideas. 

The  Outline.  An  outline  is  a  topical,  as  distin- 
guished from  a  literary,  analysis  of  a  piece  of  writing 
or  an  address,  giving  the  development  of  the  thought 
as  in  the  original.  The  order  of  the  original  is  fol- 
lowed, and  a  distinction  is  made  between  principal 
and  subordinate  ideas.  Outlines  are  usually  divided 
into  two  kinds:  (i)  topical  or  formal;  and  (2)  run- 
ning or  fragmentary.  The  latter  is  but  a  series  of 
jotted  notes,  or  rough  catch  phrases,  to  suggest 
the  course  of  thought  in  the  original.  In  the  formal 
outline  a  plan  of  arrangement  is  adopted  whereby 
the  main  co-ordinate  points  are  indicated  as  such 
by  their  relative  position  on  the  sheet  of  paper,  and 
usually  also  by  a  system  of  symbols.  A  system  of 
symbols  uniform  for  all  work  is  very  desirable  in 
college  study,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
teacher  and  from  that  of  the  student.  One  that 
is  gaining  favor  for  its  simple  clearness  alternates 
numerals  and  letters,  using  Roman  numerals  for 
the  main  topics  and  capital  letters  for  the  chief 
subordinate  points.  Further  division  is  shown  by 
the  use  of  Arabic  numerals,  then  small  letters,  then 
Arabic  numerals  in  parentheses,  and  then  small 
letters  in  parentheses.  Probably  that  is  as  far  as 
anyone  would  care  to  go  in  an  analysis,  but  there  are, 
of  course,  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  or  the 


102  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

letters  of  the  English  alphabet  in  reverse  order 
still  possible.  Headings  with  the  same  thought 
value,  or  the  same  logical  relation  to  the  preceding 
point,  are  indented  the  same  distance  from  the 
left-hand  margin,  and  are  given  symbols  of  the 
same  form  in  progressive  order.  A  specimen  out- 
line will  appear  thus : 

MY  YEAR  IN  A  COAL  MINE 

I.    Coal  Mining. 

A.  Types  of  Mines. 

1.  Deep  Shaft. 

2.  Shallow  Hillside. 

B.  The  Mine  I  Was  In. 
II.    Reasons  for  My  Work. 

A.  Interest  in  Coal  Extraction. 

B.  Remuneration. 

C.  Steady  Work. 

III.  Experiences. 

A.  The  First  Day. 

B.  Blasting. 

C.  A  Cave-in. 

1.  Cause. 

2.  Results. 

D.  The  Crazy  Mule. 

IV.  Results. 

A.  Acquaintance  with  Working  Men. 

B.  Money  Saved. 

C.  Sympathy  for  All  Miners. 

D.  Appreciation  of  Outdoor  Life. 

The  phrases  used  in  the  outline  are  commonly 
topical  words  or  phrases — not  full  sentences.  It  is 
seldom  that  an  outline  means  so  much  to  a  person 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL     103 

who  has  not  read  the  written-out  form  as  it  does  to 
one  who  has,  or  so  much  to  any  other  person  as  it 
does  to  the  one  who  made  it.  It  is  primarily  an 
individual  analysis.  Two  or  more  persons  out- 
lining the  same  original  material  would  seldom 
agree  in  their  analysis  of  what  are  the  principal  and 
what  are  the  subordinate  points,  or  at  least  in  their 
indication  of  their  interrelation,  or  in  their  phrase- 
ology. In  any  case,  however,  the  original  is  set 
forth  in  skeleton  form  according  to  some  one's 
interpretation.  Outlining  has  great  benefits  in  the 
cultivation  of  discrimination  and  logical  reasoning. 
The  Brief.  A  brief  differs  from  an  outline  in 
two  particulars,  although  it  is  usually  classed  as 
an  outline.  One  difference  is  that  its  form  always 
shows  complete  grammatical  sentences  for  every 
heading,  with  an  interlinking  word,  usually  for, 
between  superior  and  inferior  points  to  bring  out 
the  essential  subordination  of  thought.  A  brief  is 
a  guide  to  the  thought  relations,  or  to  the  logic  of 
the  sequence  of  the  ideas.  When  an  assertion  is 
made,  the  supporting  reason  immediately  follows, 
and  if  that  in  turn  depends  upon  several  items  of 
evidence,  it,  too,  must  be  linked  in  form  to  the 
several  items  arranged  in  subordinate  position, 
with  symbols  appropriate  to  the  whole  scheme  of 
the  brief.  The  brief  is  used  in  argumentative  work 
— e.  g.,  formal  debates,  court  trials,  legal  adjust- 
ments— in  short,  wherever  there  is  evidence  sub- 


io4         •  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

mitted  in  support  of  a  contention  or  opposed  to  a 
contrary  assertion.  Very  frequently,  and  properly, 
the  subdividing  of  a  brief  is  carried  to  the  citation 
of  an  authority,  or  to  the  stating  of  a  concrete 
fact,  such  as  quoting  figures,  perhaps  indented  four 
or  five  places  in  the  scheme  adopted. 

The  second  point  of  difference  between  a  brief 
and  an  outline  is  that  the  brief  is — or  should  be — 
entirely  intelligible  to  anyone  reading  it,  whether 
that  one  had  any  previous  familiarity  with  the 
subject  matter  or  not.  An  outline  is  clear  to  its 
author  and  only  suggestive  to  anyone  else;  a  brief 
is  clear  to  anyone  that  can  follow  the  thread  of  an 
argument.  Legal  briefs  are  used  by  lawyers  in 
presenting  their  cases  in  courts,  and  are  submitted 
to  the  judge,  and  sometimes  to  the  opposing 
counsel,  as  a  record  of  the  line  of  attack  and  appeal, 
and  of  the  evidence  presented  to  substantiate  the 
claims.  Not  infrequently  the  briefs  are  submitted 
without  oral  presentation  of  the  case. 

Preparing  for  One's  Own  Writing.  Of  the 
methods  of  analysis  explained  above,  that  of  out- 
lining will  prove  most  immediately  helpful  in  pre- 
paring to  write  one's  own  material.  The  importance 
of  organizing  material  for  spoken  discourse  will 
be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter;  the  importance 
for  written  work  will  be  pointed  out  here.  There 
are  two  main  purposes  for  preparing  an  outline: 
(i)  to  clarify  one's  thought  on  the  subject;  and 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL     105 

(2)  to  secure  a  proper  relationship  of  ideas.  It  is 
a  matter  of  common  experience  that  one  is  surprised 
at  his  own  ignorance  of  a  subject  when,  and  not 
until,  he  begins  to  investigate  the  available  ma- 
terial. One's  opinions  are  made  up  on  the  basis 
of  very  flimsy  evidence,  and  often  the  stronger  the 
opinion  the  more  insecure  is  its  basis.  In  order 
to  tell  others  about  a  subject  it  is  obvious  that  one 
should  have  more  than  unsupported  opinions  to 
present.  The  best  preparation  of  material,  then, 
is  to  reduce  to  an  outline  the  evidence  available 
in  support  of  one's  thoughts.  The  most  immediate 
benefit  is  upon  the  form  of  the  thoughts  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer.  Putting  down  on  paper  what  he 
thinks  of  a  subject  makes  one  formulate  his  ideas 
carefully.  He  is  more  likely  to  be  free  from  the 
fault  of  extravagance  of  statement;  ideas  take  a 
more  serious  look  when  down  in  black  and  white 
for  others  to  read.  If  they  stand  at  all  they  must 
represent  clear  thinking.  Making  an  outline,  then, 
helps  to  clarify  one's  thought. 

The  second  purpose — that  of  securing  a  right 
relationship  of  ideas — is  likewise  significant.  When 
we  look  at  a  subject  from  many  sides  and  consider 
the  elaboration  of  ideas  in  a  systematic  fashion, 
we  will  strive  to  give  a  good  balance  to  the  whole 
plan.  One  point  overshadowing  the  others,  or 
inconsistent  with  any  others,  will  destroy  or  at 
least  impair  the  effectiveness  of  one's  position. 


106  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

With  all  the  points  on  paper  before  us,  any  dis- 
proportionate treatment  or  contradictory  relation- 
ship will  be  more  evident,  judgment  of  the  effec- 
tiveness of  a  written  discourse  will,  therefore,  be 
far  better  developed  if  one  prepares  an  outline  of 
what  one  wishes  to  say. 

The  Question  of  Order.  The  analysis  of  a  piece 
of  writing  or  the  preparation  of  an  outline  of 
original  material  inevitably  raises  the  question  of 
the  order  of  the  topics  discussed.  The  question 
is  the  same  whether  the  material  is  a  single  para- 
graph or  a  long  book.  The  methods  of  developing 
a  composition,  however,  are  varied,  and  must 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter  for 
final  determination.  Suppose  we  select  four  types 
of  subjects  as  follows:  processes,  objects,  organi- 
zations, and  abstract  ideas ;  the  order  of  procedure 
in  developing  these  subjects  will  illustrate  the  im- 
portance of  finding  the  most  effective  method.  An 
exposition  of  a  process  may  best  follow  an  order 
of  time,  because  the  fundamental  idea  of  a  process 
is  that  of  sequence  of  steps  or  events.  A  manu- 
facturing process  naturally  starts  with  the  raw 
materials  used,  their  source,  their  qualities,  the 
methods  of  handling  them,  etc.;  then  it  presents 
the  successive  steps  in  the  manufacturing  itself, 
and  concludes  with  the  description  of  the  finished 
product  and  its  uses.  An  exposition  of  an  object, 
such  as  a  machine,  follows  an  order  of  logical 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL     107 

enumeration  or  comparison,  developing  the  details 
until  the  function  of  each  part  is  explained  in  the 
light  of  the  function  of  the  whole.  This  is  a  building- 
up  process,  proceeding  from  the  familiar  and  the 
simple  to  the  unfamiliar  and  the  complex.  An 
exposition  of  a  movement  or  an  organization  follows 
a  method  which  is  a  combination  of  the  two  just 
mentioned — the  order  of  time  and  the  order  of 
development.  The  background  or  source  is  first 
explained,  and  then  the  objects  and  purposes,  with 
the  details  of  the  workings,  are  presented.  An 
exposition  of  an  abstract  idea,  such  as  the  theory 
of  light,  follows  a  method  of  definition,  as  discussed 
in  Chapter  II.  Some  concrete  instances  or  ex- 
amples, some  accepted  facts,  or  some  personal  ob- 
servations will  make  a  suitable  starting  place;  the 
submission  of  proofs  to  substantiate  the  theory 
will  follow;  and  then  some  applications  to  the  con- 
ditions of  life  will  conclude  the  discussion. 

These  instances  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
methods.  No  exhaustive  list  can  be  given,  because 
the  order  of  development  to  be  followed  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter,  and  also 
upon  the  audience  to  be  reached.  The  good  judg- 
ment of  the  writer  will  decide  what  is  appropriate. 

Paragraphing.  A  paragraph  is  a  unit  of  dis- 
course that  develops  a  single  topic.  A  sentence 
may  state  an  idea;  a  paragraph  develops  it.  Some- 
times a  whole  composition  is  compressed  into  a 


io8  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

paragraph,  examples  of  which  may  be  found  in  the 
editorial  comments,  news  items,  brief  write-ups  for 
advertising  purposes,  short  reviews  of  books,  bio- 
graphical notices,  etc.,  in  magazines.  More  often 
a  paragraph  is  a  part  of  a  composition,  one  of 
many  related  paragraphs.  The  relationship  of  any 
paragraph  to  the  whole  composition,  or  perhaps 
better  to  the  immediately  adjacent  paragraphs, 
must  be  determined  with  care.  The  use  of  a  topic 
sentence,  usually  at  the  beginning  of  the  para- 
graph, but  sometimes  led  up  to  by  the  discussion, 
is  a  great  aid  in  securing  effective  paragraph  con- 
struction. These  matters  are  really  a  part  of  the 
study  of  rhetoric;  we  are  concerned  chiefly  with 
the  broad  functions  of  the  paragraph,  which  may 
be  summarized  thus:  (i)  to  assist  in  analyzing  the 
thought,  especially  when  a  long  or  involved  subject 
is  being  discussed;  (2)  to  make  clear  the  thought 
by  showing  breaks  in  the  continuity,  changes  of 
person  in  conversation,  or  the  sequence  of  serial 
items;  and  (3)  to  aid  the  reader  by  relieving  both 
physical  and  mental  strain  in  reading  consecutively. 
It  is  a  fairly  modern  device  whose  value  is  quickly 
recognized. 

The  Importance  of  the  Opening  Sentence.  One 
other  point  remains  in  the  discussion  of  preparing 
material  for  publication :  the  importance  of  getting 
a  good  start.  If  sentence  structure  is  difficult — 
and  we  find  that  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  source^ 


ANALYZING  WRITTEN  MATERIAL    109 

of  mistakes — the  opening  sentence  is  particularly 
so,  because  it  determines  the  first  impression  in 
the  mind  of  the  reader  of  the  degree  of  interest  the 
subject  matter  holds  for  him.  The  first  sentences 
should  be  direct  and  attractive,  not  too  long,  and 
yet  not  epigrammatic.  Very  many  writers  feel 
that  if  they  can  express  themselves  effectively  in 
the  opening  paragraph  the  plan  of  the  composition, 
as  a  whole,  will  carry  them  along  without  serious 
difficulty.  One  of  the  fitting  ways  of  introducing 
an  article  is  to  set  forth  the  point  of  view  of  the 
writer.  Such  a  personal  approach  should  employ 
an  active  rather  than  a  passive  verb.  The  his- 
torical approach  tries  to  establish  a  proper  perspec- 
tive. The  use  of  a  definition  shows  the  explanatory 
approach.  The  descriptive  approach  suggests  by 
an  incident  or  anecdote  the  spirit  or  principle  of 
the  whole  piece  of  writing.  The  choice  of  one  or 
another  of  these  methods  of  approach  will  depend 
upon  the  effect  the  writer  wishes  to  produce  in 
his  whole  article. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  VII 

1.  Write  a  paraphrase  of  a  short  article  or  of  a  paragraph 
of  a  long  technical  article. 

2.  If  you  know  any  foreign  language,  discuss  the  difficulties 
in  translating  it  into  English. 

3.  Summarize  a  magazine  article. 

4.  Write  a  book  review  of  some  scientific  book. 

5.  Prepare  an  outline  of  this  textbook. 


no  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

6.  Write  a  theme  on  The  Paragraph  in  the  form  of  a  para- 
graph. 

7.  Select  several  paragraphs  from  a  magazine,  and  re-word 
the  topic  sentences. 

8.  Take  a  long  paragraph  from  an  article  and  break  it  up 
into  several  short  ones. 

9.  Take  a  chapter  of  the  Bible  in  the  Authorized  Version, 
and  group  the  verses  into  paragraphs. 

10.   Submit  an  outline  of  a  laboratory  exercise. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

R.  W.  Neal:   Thought  Building  in  Composition. 
T.  C.  Mitchell  and  G.  R.  Carpenter:   Exposition  in  Class- 
room Practice. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EXPOSITION   IN    ORAL   EXPRESSION 

The  Significance  of  Speech.  Exposition  is  em- 
ployed not  merely  in  writing  but  also  in  speaking. 
In  fact,  if  we  but  stop  to  think,  we  will  have  to 
confess  that  we  have  learned  much  of  what  we 
know  through  the  medium  of  speech.  We  learned 
to  talk  before  we  learned  to  write;  we  received  our 
earliest  impressions  and  our  first  ideas  through  the 
speech  of  those  who  cared  for  us.  We  learned  the 
names  and  the  uses  of  the  objects  around  us  by 
hearing  some  one  tell  them  to  us,  either  to  safe- 
guard us  in  our  ignorance  or  to  satisfy  us  in  our 
questioning.  Frequently  the  questions  that  we 
asked  about  objects  that  perplexed  us  or  experi- 
ences that  interested  us,  were  entirely  irrelevant  to 
each  other,  and  required  but  a  meager  answer,  but 
we  had  to  have  some  reply  before  we  would  open 
our  mind  to  any  further  instruction.  We  asked 
these  questions  orally,  we  did  not  sit  down  to  write 
a  letter.  The  answers  came  to  us  orally ;  we  could 
not  wait  to  consult  some  encyclopedia  or  reference 
book — even  if  we  had  been  able  to  understand  the 


ii2  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

discussion  once  we  found  it.  Speech  in  the  home 
and  in  the  schoolroom  was  the  great  medium  of  our 
early  education.  And  later  in  life,  in  business,  the 
conversation  between  salesman  and  customer,  be- 
tween fellow  employees,  between  manager  and 
assistant,  determines  the  great  volume  of  com- 
mercial transactions.  The  telephone  makes  such 
conversation  possible  at  distances  varying  from  a 
block  to  the  width  of  the  continent. 

Speech  a  Means  of  Instruction.  Speech  has  been 
a  favorite  method  of  instruction  in  all  ages.  The 
story,  the  oration,  the  sermon,  the  lecture,  and 
the  popular  appeal — all  have  been  the  means  of 
oral  instruction  from  the  time  of  the  market-place 
gatherings  in  Athens  to  the  present-day  forum. 
The  masters  of  any  of  these  forms  of  speech, 
ancient  and  modern,  in  many  cases  are  people 
that  do  not  write  down  their  messages.  In  any 
crisis,  personal  or  communal,  we  all  desire  the  help 
of  the  spoken  word.  The  crowds  will  go  to  hear  a 
political,  social,  or  religious  reformer  without  being 
urged.  The  success  of  many  a  movement  in  history 
has  lain  with  a  leader  who  was  an  able  and  thought- 
ful public  speaker.  In  a  quieter  way,  the  teacher 
in  the  classroom  has  the  almost  irresistible  tendency 
to  fall  into  the  lecture  habit,  taking  almost  all  the 
time  himself  in  an  explanation  of  his  topic,  in  spite 
of  the  weight  of  theory  in  favor  of  the  Socratic 
or  catechetical  method.  The  teacher  who  under- 


EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION     113 

stands  the  art  of  oral  teaching  in  addition  to  his 
knowledge  of  the  subject  matter  of  his  teaching, 
has  a  great  advantage  over  a  teacher  who  has  the 
technical  information  only.  So,  whether  we  think 
of  its  public  or  of  its  private  aspects,  of  its  child- 
hood or  of  its  adult  stages,  we  realize  the  superior 
place  of  speech  in  all  mental  development. 

Speech  for  a  Technical  Man.  A  technical  man 
must  understand  the  importance  of  effective  oral 
expression.  This  importance  is  brought  out  if  we 
but  mention  the  possible  occasions  for  the  use  of 
speaking  ability.  He  may  be  required  to  appear 
before  a  board  of  trustees  or  an  executive  com- 
mittee of  management,  and  to  make  a  verbal  report 
of  some  work  that  he  has  undertaken,  or  to  advo- 
cate some  specific  plan  of  which  he  has  intimate 
knowledge.  He  may  be  asked  to  present  some 
results  of  his  investigations  at  a  convention,  or 
he  may  choose  voluntarily  to  enter  a  discussion 
upon  the  floor  of  a  convention.  Practically  every 
scientist  will  belong  to  an  association  of  people 
identified  with  his  branch  of  science.  In  the  regular 
meetings  of  the  organization  he  will  wish  to  take 
part  in  discussions,  and  perhaps  will  be  expected 
to  take  his  turn  in  holding  the  various  offices  open 
to  election.  There  are  few  more  pitiable  sights 
than  to  see  the  presiding  officer  of  a  meeting  igno- 
rant of  what  to  do  next,  or  embarrassed  to  the  extent 
of  inefficient  control  of  himself  and  the  meeting. 


ii4  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

The  technical  man  may  be  a  salesman  handling  a 
specialized  product.  The  twentieth  century  is 
seeing  the  technical  man  take  a  prominent  place 
in  public  affairs.  No  longer  is  the  engineer,  or  the 
architect,  or  the  landscape  designer,  or  the  research 
man,  simply  a  hired  man  for  a  commission  or  an 
official;  very  frequently  he  is  on  the  commission 
or  is  the  official,  into  whose  hands  is  committed 
the  work  of  overseeing  the  public  business.  The 
fact  that  several  large  cities  that  have  adopted  the 
city-manager  plan  of  government  have  turned  to 
trained  engineers  or  other  professional  men  not 
lawyers  for  their  chief  executives  is  testimony 
enough  to  the  need  of  all-around  ability,  including 
the  power  of  effective  address,  in  the  technical 
man.  The  World  War  brought  out  several  con- 
spicuous examples  of  great  efficiency  in  technically 
trained  specialists.  Nowadays  public  office  demands 
some  speaking  and  more  than  likely  a  good  deal. 
The  executive  of  a  city,  the  head  of  a  corporation, 
the  leader  of  any  great  enterprise  of  business, 
must  be  a  man  who  is  able  to  use  speech  with  skill. 
The  Preparation  of  a  Speech.  There  are  three 
primary  problems  facing  a  person  who  knows  he 
has  a  speech  to  make.  No  matter  how  formal  or 
how  informal  the  occasion  may  be,  or  how  large  or 
how  small  the  audience  may  be,  these  three  prob- 
lems must  be  worked  out  before  the  actual  delivery. 
For  an  important  occasion  there  is  usually  time 


EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION     115 

enough  allotted  ahead  for  careful  study;  for  a 
spontaneous  participation  the  importance  of  these 
three  factors  is  even  more  vividly  emphasized. 
Failure  threatens  the  man  that  disregards  them, 
trusting  to  the  inspiration  of  the  time  of  delivery 
to  carry  him  through  safely.  After  several  experi- 
ences with  careful  preparation  under  guidance,  the 
habit  of  right  attack  will  assert  itself  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  man  called  upon  unexpectedly. 

The  three  problems  are:  Adaptation,  Organiza- 
tion, and  Presentation.  Each  in  turn  has  subordi- 
nate problems,  which  will  be  taken  up  directly. 
These  problems  do  not  differ  in  principle  from  those 
facing  a  man  who  has  a  paper  to  write  and  to  read, 
or  an  essay  to  submit  to  a  periodical,  or  a  report 
to  draw  up;  they  differ  more  in  their  mechanical 
than  in  their  theoretical  aspects.  The  mastery 
of  them  comes  through  practice  quite  as  much  as 
through  personal  study,  or  at  least  through  prac- 
tice in  connection  with  personal  study.  One  cannot 
become  an  effective  speaker  merely  by  studying 
a  textbook  about  oral  expression ;  he  must  have  the 
experience  of  applying  what  he  has  learned.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  a  person  who  does  public 
speaking  would  speak  much  better  if  he  had  the 
assistance  of  capable  guidance  in  the  three  prob- 
lems just  mentioned.  A  few  people  may  be  born 
orators,  but  most  people  who  speak  do  so  because 
of  force  of  circumstances  rather  than  because  they 


n6  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

choose  work  absolutely  dependent  upon  an  ability 
to  speak.  Careful  self-training,  therefore,  by 
thoughtful  use  of  one's  abilities  as  occasion  de- 
mands, is  the  suggestion  that  we  have  in  mind  for 
the  technical  man  in  his  speechmaking. 

Adaptation.  Adaptation  is  the  relating  of  the 
subject  matter  of  a  speech  to  the  audience.  Both 
of  the  factors  involved  in  this  assertion — subject  of 
the  speech  and  nature  of  the  audience — can  be 
known  ahead  of  the  time  of  the  delivery  of  the 
speech,  the  former  without  any  question  and  the 
latter  usually  or  approximately.  The  two  must 
be  considered  together,  because  the  field  of  the 
subject  matter  is  determined  to  no  small  extent 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  type  of  the  audience  that 
will  hear  it.  If  a  speaker  is  invited  to  choose  his 
own  topic,  he  wants  to  know  first  of  all,  "What 
kind  of  an  audience  will  I  have  to  face?  What  is 
the  range  of  the  interests  of  the  people  in  the  audi- 
ence? What  is  the  occasion  of  their  gathering  to- 
gether— the  perfunctory  requirements  of  a  regular 
meeting,  or  some  special  circumstances,  and  if  the 
latter,  how  are  these  circumstances  related  to  my 
train  of  thought?"  If  a  speaker  is  assigned  a  topic, 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  assignment 
grows  out  of  a  conviction  in  the  mind  of  the  per- 
son responsible  for  arranging  the  meeting,  that  the 
interests  of  the  audience  have  a  direct  bearing  upon 
the  abilities  of  the  speaker  designated  to  add  some- 


EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION     117 

thing  of  importance  to  the  topic  chosen.  The  task 
of  the  speaker  then  is  to  understand  the  mood  and 
the  expectations  of  his  audience  just  so  far  as 
these  can  be  visualized  in  advance. 

Out  of  this  primary  determination  will  grow 
several  related  but  subordinate  matters.  One  will 
be  the  proportion  of  information  and  opinion  in 
the  address.  Is  the  topic  as  formulated  one  that 
is  intended  to  emphasize  the  instructional  element, 
or  the  expression  of  opinion  ?  Is  it  one  about  which 
the  people  seek  to  learn,  and  turn  to  the  speaker 
for  light  and  assistance?  Is  it  one  that  involves 
research  or  special  experiences,  such  that  the  ordi- 
nary person  is  not  equipped  to  undertake?  Or  is 
it  a  topic  more  or  less  widely  discussed  but  still 
unsettled?  Does  it  call  for  a  balancing  of  argu- 
ment, a  refutation  and  a  defense,  a  taking  of  sides? 
Or,  again,  is  it  of  broad  general  interest,  entertain- 
ment being  mingled  with  instruction?  An  answer 
to  such  questions  as  these  will  be  necessary  to 
enable  the  speaker  to  know  how  to  approach  his 
subject. 

Another  subordinate  point  of  adaptation  will  be 
the  tone  of  the  speaking,  or  the  attitude  to  be 
sought  in  the  actual  speaking.  Shall  the  speaker 
be  profound,  scholarly,  technical?  Do  the  cir- 
cumstances of  topic  and  audience  call  for  an  inspira- 
tional address  that  shall  tend  to  provoke  action? 
Is  the  occasion  one  for  a  popular,  witty,  or  enter- 


1x8  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

taining  attitude  in  the  speaker?  This  point  of 
tone  cannot  well  be  formulated  or  altered  after  a 
speaker  stands  before  his  audience,  it  must  be 
predetermined.  It  will  shape  the  selection  of  the 
subject  matter  and  its  organization,  as  discussed 
under  the  next  heading. 

A  third  point  of  adaptation  grows  out  of  the  one 
just  mentioned;  it  is  the  kind  of  vocabulary  that 
one  chooses  in  which  to  clothe  his  thoughts.  Simple 
truths  may  be  stated  in  a  serious,  heavy  way,  and 
on  the  contrary,  profound  truths  may  be  set  forth 
in  an  easy,  smooth,  and  simple  way.  The  question 
of  descent  to  colloquial  or  slang  expressions  must 
be  decided.  Upon  how  high  a  level  shall  the  speech 
proceed?  Shall  it  be  aimed  at  the  heads,  the  hearts, 
or  the  pocketbooks  of  the  audience?  Shall  it  be 
in  danger  of  going  over  their  heads,  or  under  their 
hearts?  Shall  the  attitude  be  one  of  sarcasm, 
ridicule,  fighting  opposition,  cordial  support,  or  of 
plain  explanation?  By  the  attitude  we  choose  to 
assume,  we  may  make  or  mar  a  speech.  It  is  wrong 
to  think  that  studied  phrases  are  not  to  be  used, 
or  that  planned  witticisms  are  impossible.  One 
cannot  plan  every  word,  or  learn  his  speech  as 
though  it  were  a  declamation,  but  he  can  and  should 
go  over  its  parts  in  words  and  fix  in  his  mind  cer- 
tain expressions  chosen  because  of  their  fitness  to 
the  speaker's  purpose. 


EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION     119 

Organization.  Organization  is  the  plan  of  the 
speech.  After  having  settled  the  adaptation  of 
subject  to  audience,  the  speaker  must  arrange  the 
available  material,  or  that  selected  for  use,  in  the 
most  effective  way  to  accomplish  the  purpose  he 
has  in  his  mind.  This  point  is  a  more  mechanical 
one  than  the  preceding,  but  none  the  less  important. 
A  speaker  rarely  exhausts  his  subject — he  may,  how- 
ever, exhaust  his  audience.  A  good  speaker  will 
have  such  a  mastery  of  the  whole  field  of  his  topic 
that  he  will  not  in  fact  or  by  impression  talk  him- 
self out  and  come  to  a  final  end  of  all  he  can  say. 
He  must  have  a  foundation  deep  enough  and  strong 
enough  to  support  all  he  may  say.  He  must  have 
a  background  clear  enough  so  that  his  essential 
thought  will  stand  out  unmistakably.  Now  this 
implies  that  the  facts  of  the  speaker's  theme  are 
tabulated  or  arranged  in  such  a  way  in  his  mind 
that  he  is  never  at  a  loss  as  to  what  to  say  next. 
For  an  adult  to  forget  his  speech  is  worse  than  for 
a  child  to  forget  his  recitation,  for  a  recitation  is 
limited  to  one  manner  of  expression,  whereas  a  dis- 
cussion of  a  subject  offers  the  possibilities  of  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  ideas,  and  allows  almost 
endless  forms  of  expression. 

In  a  mechanical  way,  then,  the  speaker  must 
have  an  outline  of  his  material.  That  outline  will 
be  strictly  logical  in  its  choice  of  the  main  and  of 


120  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

the  subordinate  topics.  The  sequence  of  the  topics 
will  be  the  sequence  best  calculated  to  present  the 
matter  clearly  and  to  lead  to  the  desired  conclusions. 
Not  invariably,  but  often  enough  to  be  helpful,  the 
time  element  or  the  When?  precedes  the  place  ele- 
ment or  the  Where  ?  Both  of  these  will  come  before 
the  personal  element  or  the  Who?  and  this  in  turn 
will  introduce  the  method  or  the  How?  If  this 
order  should  be  changed,  the  revision  should  follow 
a  careful  testing  of  the  phases  of  the  subject  in 
light  of  the  occasion  and  the  audience. 

As  a  part  of  the  outline  there  are  two  very  im- 
portant points  to  note — the  proportion  of  the  main 
topics,  and  the  transitions  from  one  topic  to  the 
next.  Speeches  are  conventionally  divided  into 
three  parts:  Introduction,  Body,  and  Conclusion. 
Accepting  this  division,  we  must  insist  that  each 
functions  as  it  theoretically  ought  to  function.  The 
Body  is  subdivided  into  as  many  main  headings 
as  the  speaker  may  select.  These  are  distinct  in 
idea  and  in  treatment.  Many  a  speech  has  had 
a  carefully  worked  out  Introduction  and  first  point, 
and  then  has  petered  out.  The  speech  is  top- 
heavy.  Another  speech  may  require  time  to  get 
under  way,  repeated  cranking  of  the  engine  as  it 
were,  but  will  come  to  a  splendid  finish.  Not  in- 
frequently a  speaker  in  a  pulpit  or  on  a  platform 
will  start  well,  and  then  get  lost  from  the  path  of 
his  speech,  or  will  dawdle  along  without  good  ter- 


EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION     121 

minal  facilities.  Sometimes  a  point  is  left  unde- 
veloped, leaving  the  impression  that  the  speaker  is 
unconvincing.  In  any  of  these  cases  the  speech 
lacks  a  proper  proportion  of  elements. 

Transitions  are  statements  or  passages  that  bridge 
over  the  distance  between  two  successive  topics. 
Thoughts  of  equal  importance  in  a  speech  may  not 
have  any  very  close  relationship  logically,  but 
whether  they  do  or  not  the  step  from  one  to  the 
other  should  be  decisive  and  clear.  A  Rubicon  is 
to  be  crossed,  and  the  audience  should  be  made  to 
understand  without  any  possibility  of  doubt  that, 
whereas  the  speaker  was  just  now  on  one  side  of  the 
division,  he  is  now  on  the  other.  Whenever  the 
speaker  passes  from  one  topic  of  his  address  to  the 
next  topic  of  equal  rank,  he  effects  a  transition. 
The  length  of  the  transitional  element  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  importance  of  the  two  topics,  or 
according  to  the  greatness  of  their  divergence  in 
thought.  Usually  transitions  are  brief,  frequently  a 
single  word,  very  rarely  more  than  three  sentences. 
The  inferential  words  like  therefore,  now,  next,  how- 
ever, etc. ;  or  phrases  like  on  the  other  hand,  leaving 
this,  let  us  consider,  etc.,  are  examples  of  transi- 
tional elements.  A  summarizing  sentence  or  an 
anticipatory  suggestion  may  be  used.  Sometimes 
without  any  such  words,  a  change  of  position,  the 
alteration  of  the  pitch  of  the  voice,  or  a  gesture, 
may  be  sufficient  to  convey  the  idea  of  transition; 


122  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

these  are  usually  employed  along  with  a  suitable 
word  or  phrase. 

Under  organization  of  material  comes  the  use 
of  figures  of  speech  and  other  points  of  rhetoric. 
Just  how  many  examples  or  anecdotes  to  give,  just 
how  many  illustrations  to  use,  and  further,  the 
quality  of  them,  whether  humorous,  personal,  or 
imaginary,  are  matters  to  be  thought  out  in  ad- 
vance of  the  delivery  of  the  speech.  Exposition, 
whether  oral  or  written,  should  be  as  concrete  as 
possible.  Concreteness  is  secured  by  vocabulary 
in  part,  but  also  by  frequency  and  by  type  of  illus- 
trative material.  Explanation,  as  has  already  been 
said,  requires  a  starting  with  familiar  ideas.  The 
point  of  departure  must  be  a  station  easily  recog- 
nized and  frequently  visited.  The  points  along  the 
way  follow  then  in  cumulative  fashion. 

Presentation.  Presentation  is  the  planning  of  the 
method  and  manner  of  delivery.  A  distinction  is 
made  between  presentation  as  the  preliminary  work, 
and  delivery  as  the  actual  giving  of  the  speech. 
The  latter  has  to  do  with  elocution,  voice  culture, 
proper  breathing,  and  many  other  important  mat- 
ters beyond  the  province  of  this  textbook.  The 
former  has  to  do  with  a  few  principles  of  conduct 
that  we  will  discuss  briefly. 

Speaking  is  primarily  the  bringing  of  the  mind  of 
the  speaker  into  contact  with  the  mind  or  minds  of 
his  audience.  The  great  intangible  human  factor 


EXPOSITION  IN  ORAL  EXPRESSION     123 

enters.  Principles  rather  than  rules  can  be  laid 
down.  The  first  principle  to  remember  is  that  the 
thing  that  is  being  said  is  most  important.  A 
speaker  filled  with  his  subject,  thinking  of  his  mes- 
sage, will  not  need  to  bother  about  details.  Whether 
his  feet  are  together,  whether  his  hands  are  in  his 
pockets,  whether  his  gestures  are  graceful — are 
questions  that  will  not  intrude  themselves.  A 
second  principle  is  that  a  speaker  may  use  one 
or  more  of  several  helps  in  presenting  his  thought — 
such  helps  as  a  blackboard  diagram,  a  picture,  an 
object,  even  notes  that  contain  dates,  figures,  or 
catch  phrases  of  his  outline.  There  is  monotony 
and  consequent  loss  of  effectiveness  in  too  great 
excitement  as  in  too  great  stiffness.  Loudness  of 
voice  is  not  to  be  confused  with  emphasis,  or  pitch 
of  voice  with  making  people  hear.  Gesticulations 
are  not  gestures,  nor  is  walking  up  and  down  an 
indication  of  self-possession.  To  come  back  to  a 
positive  statement,  the  helps  to  effective  speaking 
are  to  be  used  even  though  they  may  not  be  con- 
ventional; they  simply  must  be  helps  and  not 
hindrances.  At  first  a  speaker  will  think  of  details 
of  appearance  too  much,  later  perhaps  not  enough. 
A  speaker  has  something  to  say,  and  he  will  do 
whatever  in  his  judgment  will  help  him  say  his 
thoughts  in  a  manner  to  convince  and  to  persuade 
his  hearers. 


i24  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  VIII 

1.  Prepare  a  five-minute  talk  on  a  topic  from  your  own 
experience. 

2.  Prepare  a  five-minute  talk  on  a  topic  of  current  scientific 
interest. 

3.  Submit  an  outline  of  your  talk. 

4.  Write  out  the  introduction  of  your  talk. 

5.  Write  out  the  conclusion  of  your  talk. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

I.  L.  Winter:  Public  Speaking. 

F.  B.  Robinson:   Effective  Public  Speaking. 

C.  H.  Woolbert:  Fundamentals  of  Speech. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  BUSINESS   LETTER 

The  Business  Letter  Type.  Probably  the  first 
piece  of  writing  that  a  graduate  of  a  technical  school 
will  be  called  upon  to  undertake  will  be  a  letter. 
It  may  be  a  letter  of  application  for  a  position,  it 
may  be  an  acceptance  of  an  offer,  or,  less  profes- 
sionally, it  may  be  a  letter  to  home  folks,  counsel- 
ing over  future  plans.  For  centuries  the  letter  has 
been  regarded  as  a  literary  vehicle  of  thought.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  studies  of  great  men  is  that 
of  their  correspondence,  as  almost  any  careful 
biography  will  reveal.  It  is  frequently  the  "Life 

and  Letters  of "  that  is  stamped  on  the  backs 

of  the  volumes  of  biography.  Anthologies  of  let- 
ters of  literary  people  have  been  published  not 
merely  for  their  biographical  value,  but  for  their 
literary  charm.  Letter  writing  is  an  art  that  any 
college  man  may  well  afford  to  practice  with  dili- 
gence. But  there  has  come  a  new  and  a  distinctly 
modern  viewpoint  to  letter  writing — that  of  the 
business  man  in  his  business  transactions.  At 


i26  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

first  the  business  letter  was  not  regarded  as  a 
separate  type;  then  it  came  to  be  rather  sharply 
distinguished  from  the  social  letter,  perhaps  in 
part  as  a  protest  against  the  stilted  and  verbose 
language  frequently  found  in  the  literary  type. 
Now  there  is  a  tendency  to  pay  just  as  much  atten- 
tion to  the  style  of  writing  in  business  letters  as  in 
the  most  careful  literary  work.  The  business  man 
is  coming  to  see  the  advantage  of  careful  English, 
even  of  choice  diction,  without  any  false  standards 
of  taste  in  its  style.  A  type  of  letter  has  arrived 
that  holds,  in  exposition,  the  place  the  literary  letter 
holds  in  narration  and  description. 

The  Point  of  View.  The  number  of  textbooks  of 
business  correspondence  has  increased  greatly  in 
the  last  decade.  Most  of  them,  however,  have  been 
adapted  to  training  the  stenographer  or  the  secre- 
tary, or  to  giving  suggestions  for  the  self-help  of 
the  employer  whose  schooling  has  been  either  far 
distant  or  scanty.  Such  textbooks  serve  their  pur- 
poses undoubtedly,  yet  they  leave  something  to  be 
desired  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  modern  office 
man  whose  college  experiences  have  been  both 
varied  and  recent.  In  this  discussion,  we  shall 
adopt  the  standpoint  of  the  college-trained  man 
who  is  thrust  into  unfamiliar  surroundings  in  an 
office  and  is  given  some  business  responsibility. 
He  probably  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  hiring  of 
the  stenographer  or  with  setting  the  office  customs 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  127 

of  his  firm;  he  has  a  stenographer  for  an  hour  or 
two  a  day,  and  he  has  a  specific  phase  of  the  busi- 
ness to  handle,  requiring  the  writing  of  letters, 
reports,  or  records.  He  is  reasonably  well  grounded 
in  grammar,  but  he  lacks  the  ability  to  organize 
his  ideas  in  a  clear,  concise  manner  when  facing 
his  assistant  or  his  superior,  and  he  is  unfamiliar 
with  the  atmosphere  of  business.  Time  is  needed 
to  enable  him  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  details; 
his  experiences  will  stand  him  in  good  stead  for 
the  broad  principles.  Anything  that  will  hasten 
his  acquisition  of  essential  facts  and  methods  will 
be  of  decided  benefit  to  him. 

The  Form  of  the  Letter.  There  are  certain  points 
that  such  a  man,  trained  in  the  classroom  but  not 
in  the  office,  must  know  as  he  comes  to  write  busi- 
ness letters,  beyond  familiarity  with  the  business 
methods,  processes,  and  purposes  of  his  firm.  He 
must  know,  first,  the  form  of  the  business  letter. 
The  stenographer  usually  takes  care  of  the  me- 
chanics of  the  arrangement,  but  the  composer  of 
the  letter  must  know  at  a  glance  whether  the 
proprieties  have  been  observed,  and  if  not,  how  to 
set  any  error  right.  The  policy  of  the  firm  may 
designate  certain  observances — e.  g.,  the  spacing, 
the  form  of  the  complimentary  close,  or  the  method 
of  folding  the  sheet.  These  points  should  be 
thoroughly  known  to  the  composer,  and  always 
checked  by  him  in  the  letters  that  leave  his  desk. 


128  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

He  must  further  see  that  every  letter  is  complete 
in  its  form  as  well  as  in  its  subject  matter.  To 
be  complete  a  letter  must  have  the  six  parts:  the 
heading,  the  inside  address,  the  salutation,  the 
message,  the  complimentary  close,  and  the  signa- 
ture. These  six  parts  are  assigned  definite  places 
on  the  sheet  of  paper,  with  an  eye  to  neatness  of 
appearance  as  well  as  to  logical  significance.  The 
heading  gives  the  sufficient  address  of  the  sender 
and  the  date  of  writing.  Almost  all  firms  have 
printed  letterhead  stationery,  the  information  in 
which  need  not  be  repeated  by  the  typist.  The 
date  is  always  to  be  stated,  the  approved  location 
being  about  one  inch  below  the  lowest  line  of  the 
printed  head,  and  on  the  right-hand  side,  keeping 
to  an  approximate  right-hand  margin  for  the  body 
of  the  letter.  The  inside  address  states  the  name 
and  the  sufficient  address  of  the  person  or  firm  to 
whom  the  letter  is  sent.  Its  position  establishes 
the  left-hand  margin  of  the  letter  and  is  about  an 
inch  below  the  line  of  the  date.  It  is  commonly 
divided  into  as  many  lines  as  are  required  for  each 
item  of  name,  position,  street,  and  post-office 
address  separately,  each  significant  word  being 
capitalized.  The  salutation  is  a  formal  beginning 
of  the  letter,  required  by  usage  and  by  courtesy. 
Its  position  is  flush  with  the  left-hand  margin  on 
a  line  by  itself,  distinct  from  the  inside  address  just 
above  it,  and  from  the  message  just  below  it.  It 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  129 

is  punctuated  as  anticipating  the  message,  usually 
with  a  colon,  sometimes  with  a  comma.  The 
simplest  and  best  forms  are:  Dear  Sir:  or  Gentle- 
men: singular  and  plural  masculine;  and  Dear 
Madam:  or  Ladies:  single  and  plural  feminine. 
With  officials,  a  name  with  Mr.  or  other  appropri- 
ate title,  or  a  title  alone  may  be  used.  The  addi- 
tion of  the  personal  pronoun  My  to  the  word  dear 
lessens  the  formality  in  friendly  letters,  but  in- 
creases it  in  formal  letters.  The  message  is  the 
body  of  the  letter,  arranged  in  paragraphs  accord- 
ing to  good  paragraph  principles,  varying  somewhat 
in  function  according  to  the  type  of  the  letter. 
It  is  punctuated  as  a  complete  portion;  that 
is,  is  not  carried  over  into  the  ending  by  a 
participial  construction,  such  as  "Thanking  you 
for  attention,"  or  "Hoping  to  hear  soon."  The 
complimentary  close  is  the  courteous  statement  lead- 
ing directly  to  the  signature  of  the  firm  or  person 
sending  the  letter.  It  is  put  two  or  three  spaces 
below  the  last  line  of  the  message,  and  begins  at 
the  vertical  middle  line  of  the  sheet  of  paper.  Its 
punctuation  is  a  comma.  The  approved  forms  for 
business  letters  use  the  words  "truly"  or  "respect- 
fully," either  with  or  without  "very,"  but  never 
without  "yours."  The  order  of  the  words  used 
is  not  fixed,  and  only  the  first  one  is  capitalized. 
The  signature  for  a  firm  letter  is  commonly  the 
typed  or  rubber-stamped  firm  name  followed  on 


i3o  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

a  separate  line  by  the  signed  name  of  the  person 
composing  the  letter.  If  the  firm  name  is  not  used 
the  signed  name  of  the  writer  may  be  followed  by 
the  typed  position  occupied  by  him  in  the  firm. 
The  position  is  slightly  to  the  right  of  the  beginning 
of  the  complimentary  close.  In  addition,  the  typist 
may  insert  the  initials  of  the  composer  and  her 
own  at  the  left-hand  margin  of  the  letter  on  the 
next  line  below  the  signature.  The  whole  letter 
is  centered  upon  the  sheet,  the  length  of  the  line 
depending  upon  the  total  length  of  the  letter.  An 
ample  margin  is  desirable  both  for  neatness  of  ap- 
pearance and  for  convenience  to  typist  and  to 
correspondent. 

Types  of  Business  Letters.  The  second  point  that 
the  composer  of  business  letters  must  know  is  the 
exact  nature  of  the  problem  before  him  which  must 
be  solved  by  means  of  his  letter.  This  knowledge 
involves,  fundamentally,  acquaintance  with  cur- 
rent business  methods,  and  more  specifically,  famili- 
arity with  the  various  types  of  business  letters. 
The  discussion  of  the  fundamental  acquaintance 
with  business  methods  lies  beyond  the  province 
of  this  textbook,  and  in  fact  cannot  be  gained  com- 
pletely from  any  textbook.  The  various  types  of 
business  letters  can  be  characterized  briefly,  the 
differences  being  in  the  methods  of  handling  the 
necessary  information  to  be  conveyed  to  the  reader. 
The  types  are  alike  in  the  matters  of  form  just 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  131 

discussed,  and  in  the  matter  of  their  broad  attitude 
of  courtesy  and  sincerity.  We  will  take  the  letters 
in  order  of  their  inherent  difficulty  of  composition, 
understanding  that  each  type  will  include  the 
original  letter  and  its  reply. 

Letters  of  Application  are  often  classified  as  sales 
letters,  and,  if  so,  really  belong  later  in  this  list; 
it  is  true  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  attempts 
to  sell  one's  services,  and  therefore  require  all  the 
psychology  that  underlies  a  sale.  But  from  a 
slightly  different  angle,  they  are  a  preliminary  type 
of  letter,  preceding  any  business  experience,  at 
least  so  far  as  the  writer  of  the  letter  is  concerned, 
and  are  most  effective  when  reasonably  personal, 
and  quite  natural.  The  essential  contents,  following 
the  actual  application  for  the  desired  position,  in- 
clude a  statement  of  the  writer's  qualifications,  his 
capacity,  and  his  experience  up  to  the  time  of 
application. 

Letters  of  Recommendation  are  closely  associated 
with  Letters  of  Application;  oftentimes  they  are 
used  as  inclosures  with  an  application.  When 
written  directly  to  a  prospective  employer,  they 
state  concisely  the  circumstances  that  call  them 
forth,  the  facts  of  the  applicant's  career,  the  writer's 
judgment  and  indorsement  (or  disapproval).  Usu- 
ally Letters  of  Recommendation  are  written  upon 
request,  either  of  the  applicant  in  whose  behalf 
they  are  sent,  or  of  the  prospective  employer  after 


i32  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

he  has  received  an  application;  sometimes  they 
are  written  as  open  letters  "To  Whomever  May  Be 
Concerned,"  in  which  case  the  words  of  recommen- 
dation are  somewhat  more  general  in  character. 
They  then  serve  more  as  introductions. 

Request  Letters,  or  Letters  Asking  for  Information, 
are  those  letters  written  in  pursuit  of  knowledge  that 
cannot  be  gained  from  printed  matter,  or  when 
printed  matter  is  not  available.  They  may  lead 
to  a  purchase,  or  they  may  be  simply  routine  ques- 
tions having  to  do  with  dates,  terms,  persons,  etc. 
When  the  information  sought  has  no  direct  benefit 
to  the  giver  of  the  information,  the  asker  should 
offer  payment  of  any  expense  incurred,  even  return 
postage.  The  writer  of  such  a  letter  must  be  per- 
fectly clear  in  his  request,  courteous  in  his  phrasing, 
and  as  brief  as  possible.  The  person  addressed  may 
find  it  necessary  to  refuse  the  request,  but  under 
any  conditions  he  must  be  sympathetic,  exact,  and 
friendly. 

Order  Letters  should  be  limited  to  the  statement 
of  the  goods  desired;  to  include  other  material  is 
more  inadvisable  in  an  order  letter  than  in  any 
other,  and  is  to  be  avoided  in  any  business  letter. 
If  order  blanks  are  supplied  by  the  selling  firm,  no 
letter  need  accompany  the  blank  properly  filled  out ; 
if  the  order  is  a  letter,  the  usual  form  of  a  business 
letter  is  observed,  and  the  items  ordered  are  tabu- 
lated, with  columns  carefully  kept  for  quantities, 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  133 

description  of  goods,  and  prices.  The  letter  will 
close  with  a  reference  to  method  of  shipment 
desired,  and  manner  of  payment  adopted.  In  the 
same  class  with  order  letters  are  Letters  of  Acknowl- 
edgment, whether  of  the  receipt  of  the  order,  or 
of  the  receipt  of  the  goods  by  the  person  who  sent 
in  the  order.  Oftentimes  form  postal  cards  are 
used  for  this  purpose,  but  not  infrequently  they 
are  not  sent  at  all.  If  shipment  must  be  delayed, 
or  if  there  is  any  question  about  goods  or  customer, 
then  an  acknowledgment  is  desirable. 

Adjustment  Letters  include  letters  from  custom- 
ers who  have  some  grievance,  and  letters  from  the 
Claims  Department  of  firms  in  whose  hands  is 
the  satisfying  of  displeased  buyers.  A  letter  from 
a  customer  should  state  all  the  facts  of  the  case  as 
he  understands  them  and  in  the  order  of  their  oc- 
currence; it  may  also  include  suggestions  for  settle- 
ment. A  letter  from  a  firm  should  be  explanatory 
rather  than  argumentative,  always  courteous,  and 
definitely  upon  the  point  of  grievance.  It  may 
state  the  necessity  of  further  time,  but  should  not 
be  itself  delayed  on  that  account.  It  may  properly 
include  some  sales  material.  There  are  so  many 
kinds  of  trouble  possible  in  business,  from  the  time 
of  receiving  the  order,  through  the  packing,  ship- 
ping, transportation,  receipt,  and  billing,  that  each 
case  really  has  to  be  treated  by  itself.  Certain 
policies  or  precedents  may  determine  the  contents 


i34  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

of  the  letter  sent  to  make  adjustment,  but  the 
personal  note  should  not  be  lost  entirely. 

Credit  Letters  are  primarily  those  letters  written 
by  firms  to  inquire  about  the  standing  of  a  cus- 
tomer, or  to  establish  credit  relations  with  a  cus- 
tomer. They  may  be  said  to  include  also  letters 
asking  for  credit  or  extension  of  credit  or  change 
of  terms  of  credit.  This  class  of  letters  has  to  do 
with  reputations  of  people,  and  should  be  kindly, 
dignified,  and  frank. 

Collection  Letters  are  usually  prepared  in  a  series, 
each  letter  adding  something  in  fullness,  firmness, 
or  threatened  action  to  the  letter  preceding  it. 
The  problem  of  the  writer  is  to  collect  money  due 
his  firm  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the  trade  of  the 
customer  owing  the  money.  All  reasonable  meas- 
ures are  attempted  before  legal  action  is  threat- 
ened; then,  if  results  are  not  forthcoming,  action 
should  take  the  place  of  letters. 

Sales  Letters  constitute  the  big  group  of  letters 
that  require  both  a  knowledge  of  human  nature 
and  business  experience  for  effectiveness.  The 
sales  letters  of  a  firm  have  to  fit  in  with  the  adver- 
tising, the  work  of  the  salesmen,  the  policy  of  the 
management,  and  the  exigencies  of  the  business 
world.  Like  collection  letters,  sales  letters  are 
written  in  a  series,  in  which  the  follow-up  letters 
have  a  distinct  place.  The  material  that  is  worked 
into  sales  letters  is  taken  from  all  possible  places. 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  135 

The  accepted  arrangement  of  the  material  desig- 
nates four  parts  to  a  sales  letter:  (i)  a  point  of  con- 
tact, which  is  an  attention-getting,  introductory 
approach;  (2)  a  paragraph  of  conviction,  which 
states  the  excellencies  of  the  article  offered  for 
sale;  (3)  a  paragraph  of  persuasion,  which  turns 
these  excellencies  to  the  personal  needs  or  desires 
of  the  prospective  purchaser;  and  (4)  a  clincher, 
which  presses  home  the  desirability  of  a  favorable 
response  as  soon  as  may  be  possible,  and  shows 
how  or  where  the  purchase  may  be  consummated. 
The  immense  variety  of  ways  in  which  these  sales 
appeals  can  be  made,  and  the  great  variety  of 
human  beings  to  whom  the  appeals  can  be  made, 
make  of  the  writing  of  sales  letters  a  fascinating 
and  rewarding  task. 

Dictation.  The  third  point  that  the  composer  of 
business  letters  must  know  is  the  method  of  dic- 
tating the  material  for  his  letters  to  a  secretary 
or  stenographer.  Few  business  men  now  write  their 
own  letters;  they  formulate  the  material,  and,  of 
course,  are  responsible  for  the  results.  The  ability 
to  think  clearly  and  to  state  concisely  just  what  is 
in  one's  mind  is  an.  ability  that  can  be  cultivated — 
and  must  be.  It  is  not  merely  business  acumen  and 
resourcefulness,  but  is  also  a  psychological  quality, 
a  personal  faculty.  It  means  the  power  of  analysis 
and  organization  of  material ;  it  also  means  placing 
the  results  of  such  thought  in  its  most  effective 


i36  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

form  for  others  to  follow.  This  calls  for  skill  in 
dictation.  To  organize  one's  thoughts  aloud  is  not 
the  same  as  doing  it  quietly  to  oneself.  There  must 
be  a  plan  based  upon  sound  business  principles 
and  also  upon  all  that  one  can  know  from  study 
and  from  experience  of  the  principles  of  rhetoric. 
Faults  of  organization  cannot  be  blamed  upon  the 
stenographer;  rather  the  faults  of  the  stenographer 
may  frequently  be  blamed  upon  the  dictator  of 
letters.  Efficiency  in  taking  down  data  depends 
to  no  small  extent  upon  such  points  as  speed  of 
utterance,  clearness  of  enunciation,  choice  of  words, 
smoothness  of  grammatical  construction  of  sen- 
tences, and  incisiveness  of  meaning.  Some  stenog- 
raphers are  too  literal,  some  are  too  ignorant,  all 
are  human. 

The  Spirit  of  the  Letter.  A  final  requirement  for 
composers  of  business  letters  is  one  that  must  be 
mentioned,  but  that  need  not  be  discussed  at 
length.  It  is  an  unfailing  ethical  code.  The  quali- 
ties of  courtesy,  honesty,  and  fairness  are  every- 
where recognized  as  fundamental  in  business;  they 
are  no  less  so  in  business  letters.  The  spirit  of  all 
of  the  letters  of  any  firm  must  reflect  the  real  policy 
of  the  men  in  charge  of  its  affairs.  There  is  no 
rule  whereby  this  spirit  can  be  transferred  to  words; 
but  ethical  principles  must  be  so  firmly  grasped  by 
every  subordinate  that  they  reveal  themselves  in 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  137 

the  choice  of  words,  the  carefulness  of  expression, 
and  the  clearness  of  thought  of  the  letter. 

The  Filing  of  Letters.  Anyone  who  is  required 
to  dictate  business  letters  will  have  occasion  to 
consult  previous  correspondence,  both  outgoing  and 
incoming.  He  must,  therefore,  understand  the 
broad  principles  that  govern  the  filing  of  papers, 
especially  letters.  The  mechanical  details  of  filing 
and  of  finding  letters  are  usually  left  to  clerks  or 
secretaries;  but  the  methods  must  be  familiar  to 
office  men,  too,  both  for  the  sake  of  counseling 
with  a  subordinate,  and  in  order  not  to  be  helpless 
in  an  emergency.  Copies  of  outgoing  letters  are 
made  at  the  time  the  letter  is  typed,  and  are  pre- 
served according  to  the  system  adopted  by  the 
firm,  either  copybook  or  filing  cabinet.  Incoming 
letters  are  filed  for  reference,  usually  in  a  vertical 
file,  which  allows  the  sheet  of  paper  to  stand  on 
edge,  with  letterhead  to  the  left,  in  a  folder,  or 
behind  indexed  guide  cards.  They  are  kept  in  a 
temporary  cabinet  until  the  transaction  is  closed, 
then  placed  in  a  regular  file,  and  then  at  the  end 
of  predetermined  periods,  varying  from  a  year  to 
twenty  years,  according  to  the  nature  and  the 
volume  of  the  business,  the  letters  are  either  put 
in  a  transfer  cabinet  of  less  expensive  construction, 
or  are  destroyed.  The  system  of  guide  cards  varies 
also  with  the  nature  and  the  volume  of  business, 
but  in  general  they  are  so  placed  that  they  allow 


i38  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

clear  and  easy  location  of  a  letter  sought  for.  The 
zigzag  or  staggered  arrangement  of  tabs  is  most 
common,  though  primary  and  secondary  positions 
are  also  used.  The  systems  of  indexing  files  are 
three:  (i)  alphabetical,  by  which  the  guide  cards 
are  provided  with  single  letters  or  groups  of  letters 
showing  an  absolutely  strict  alphabetical  order; 
(2)  numerical,  by  which  numbers  in  serial  order 
show  the  location  of  any  firm's  correspondence,  in 
connection  with  a  key  alphabetically  arranged; 
and  (3)  topical,  by  which  words  indicating  the 
subject  matter  of  the  letters,  or  possibly,  as  a 
variation,  the  geographical  location  of  firms,  are 
put  upon  the  guide  tabs.  In  this  system  a  subordi- 
nate scheme  is  adopted  for  firms  or  for  cities  or 
for  both.  A  fairly  common  variation  is  also  to 
combine  the  numerical  and  the  alphabetical  plans; 
another  is  to  combine  the  alphabetical  with  the 
whole  name  guides.  Other  modifications  can  be 
devised  to  suit  any  particular  business.  Whoever 
dictates  letters  must  know  the  system  adopted  by 
his  firm. 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  139 

SPECIMENS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  LETTERS 
LETTER  OF  APPLICATION 

11093  Euclid  Ave., 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
January  27,  1921. 

The  Sunset  Paint  Company, 
1015  Warsaw  Ave. , 
Chicago,  111. 

Gentlemen: 

Mr.  C.  Prutton  of  the  Gladding  Var- 
nish Company  has  suggested  that  I  apply 
for  the  position  of  paint  and  varnish 
salesman  of  the  Middle  Western  District 
in  your  company. 

I  have  had  three  years'  experience 
as  salesman  of  chemical  supplies  with  the 
Snow  Chemical  Company,  and  feel  capable 
of  handling  your  products.   A  guarantee 
of  $150.00  a  month  with  a  ten  per  cent 
commission  is  desired. 

For  a  private  interview  I  can  "be 
reached  at  any  time  at  my  address. 

Yours  very  truly, 
G.  H.  I. 


i4o  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


REQUEST  LETTER 

11447  Euclid  Avenue, 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
March  13,  1920. 

Mr.  John  Rockwell, 
318  Madison  Ave . , 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Dear  Sir: 

I  have  received  a  "booklet  from  the 
Nashville  Furnace  Company  in  which  is 
printed  a  letter  from  you  saying  that  you 
have  saved  coal  "by  using  one  of  their 
furnaces.   The  furnace  problem  at  the 
present  time  interests  me  very  deeply  and 
I  would  like  more  of  the  details  of  your 
experience  with  this  furnace. 

Will  you  please  write  me,  using  the 
return  envelope  enclosed,  and  furnish  me 
more  information  such  as  the  size  of 
your  house,  its  construction,  the  average 
amount  of  coal  saved  each  month,  what 
kind  of  coal  you  use,  and  whether  your 
data  extends  over  several  years  or  only 
the  first  that  your  furnace  was  in  use. 

I  trust  that  your  reply  will  not 
inconvenience  you. 

Yours  very  truly, 
J.  K,  L, 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  141 


ORDER  LETTER 

3000  Euclid  Ave.  , 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
April  4,  1921. 

duett,  Peabody  and  Company, 
New  York  City. 

Gentlemen: 

Please  ship  me  by  Adams  Express  pre- 
paid, the  following  Arrow  Brand  collars: 

6  doz.  Belmont  style  size  14 

6  doz.  Devon  "  " 

4  doz.  Belmont  "  "   15 

3  doz.  Standish  »  " 


Payment  will  "be  made  in  accordance 
with  your  usual  terms. 

Yours  very  truly, 
M.  N.  0. 


i42  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


ADJUSTMENT  LETTER 

2193  East  Seventh  St., 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
January  20,  1921. 

The  East  Side  Department  Store, 
Newark,  N.  J. 

Gentlemen: 

We  deeply  regret  the  mistake  that 
our  bookkeeper  has  made.   It  has  placed 
us  in  an  embarrassing  position  and  has 
caused  you  great  inconvenience. 

Our  rush  of  "business  has  been 
greater  than  our  clerks  can  handle, 
consequently  we  have  been  forced  to  rely 
upon  extra  clerical  help. 

I  enclose  a  corrected  bill  amounting 
to  $14.90,  which  is  now  one  week  overdue. 
We  realize  that  the  fault  has  been  wholly 
ours,  and  in  view  of  our  past  friendly 
relations  we  will  allow  the  three  per 
cent  discount  which  we  gave  our  customers 
for  bills  paid  by  the  thirteenth. 

Yours  respectfully, 
P.  Q.  R. 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  143 


CREDIT  LETTER 

2145  Lakeside  Ave . , 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
March  14,  1920. 

The  Pierce  Hardware  Company, 
Hay wood,  Pa. 

Gentlemen: 

We  are  pleased  to  be  able  to  grant 
your  request  for  further  extension  of 
credit.   This  credit  will  be  extended  an 
additional  sixty  days. 

We  realize  the  conditions  of  your 
territory  have  been  very  unfavorable 
during  the  past  season.   It  has  always 
been  the  policy  of  our  house  to  co- 
operate to  the  fullest  extent  with  our 
customers.   We  expect  their  co-operation 
in  return. 

We  know  that  you  will  make  every 
effort  to  meet  this  obligation  when  it 
becomes  due. 

Yours  truly, 

S.  T.  U. 


144  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 


COLLECTION  LETTER1 

78  River  St. , 
Erie ,  Pa. , 
April  25,  1920. 

Mr.  Henry  Burrill, 

Conneaut,  Ohio. 

Dear  Sir: 

Two  months  ago  you  opened  an  account 
with  us  and  purchased  "boxes  and  crates 
to  the  amount  of  $162.00,  but  as  yet  you 
have  made  no  payment. 

As  you  know,  our  business  is  con- 
ducted strictly  on  a  cash  basis,  and  we 
wish  you  would  make  some  settlement  with 
us  before  the  end  of  the  month,  as  your 
account  is  now  two  weeks  overdue.   Let 
us  know  what  you  can  do  with  regard  to 
this  matter. 

Yours  very  truly, 

V.  W.  X. 


1  This  letter  presupposes  a  simple  statement  of  the  account  and 
two  milder  letters  which  offered  the  customer  an  opportunity  to 
make  a  complaint  about  the  goods,  or  to  present  some  good 
reason  for  delay  in  payment. 


THE  BUSINESS  LETTER  145 

SALES  LETTER 

J.   H.   HUMPHREY 

CIGARS 

P.  O.  Box  1014 

KEY  WEST,  FLA. 

To   the  Smoker 

of  High-Grade   Cigars 

Dear  Sir: 

You  would  smoke  three  or  four  cigars 
from  a  "box  of  them  if  I  could  come  into 
your  office  and  leave  one  hundred,  with 
a  request  that  you  try  them  for  a  few 
days.   I  cannot  come  to  you,  as  I  must 
induce  thousands  to  smoke  my  cigars. 
Won't  you  let  me  send  the  cigars  to  you 
by  Parcel  Post,  and  give  them  a  trial? 
If  they  fail  to  please  you,  return  them. 
I  will  make  no  charge  for  the  few  you 
smoke,  if  you  do  not  keep  them. 

The  cigar  I  offer  you  is  made  in  two 
shapes,  Londres  and  Panetela,  both  four 
and  three-quarter  inches  long  and  of 
standard  thickness;  filler,  Havana 
selected  for  mildness  and  aroma;  wrapper, 
Havana  of  good  quality,  imported.   There 
are  few  cigars  on  the  retail  market  as 
good  at  twelve  cents  each.   These  cigars 
are  not  held  in  storage.   I  will  place 
them  in  your  hands,  fresh  from  the  work- 
man, either  shape,  by  the  hundred,  for 
Eight  Dollars. 


i46  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

The  ten  day  trial  offer  is  to  demon- 
strate my  faith  in  these  cigars,  and  to 
prevent  your  "buying  them  if  they  do  not 
please  your  individual  taste.   If  I  were 
not  making  good  cigars,  worth  the  price, 
I  could  not  ship  them  on  this  plan. 

Sign  and  mail  the  trial  blank  in 
the  enclosed  stamped  envelope  and  see  for 
yourself  how  superior  perfectly  fresh 
Havana  Cigars  are.   I  "believe  you  will 
like  them,  and  am  willing  to  back  my 
judgment  by  standing  the  expense  of  the 
demonstration. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  H.  HUMPHREY. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  IX 

1.  Write  a  letter  answering  an  advertisement  that  you  clip 
from  a  newspaper. 

2.  Write  a  letter  of  recommendation  for  a  classmate  for  a 
position  advertised  in  a  newspaper. 

3.  Write  a  sales  letter  concerning  some  product  advertised 
in  a  popular  magazine. 

4.  Write  a  sales  letter  concerning  some  specialized  technical 
product,  taking  the  "talking  points"  from  a  magazine 
advertisement. 

5.  Investigate  the  history  of  "The  Better  Business  Letter 
Association." 

6.  Consult  the  catalog  of  the  Library  Bureau  to  find  filing 
devices  explained.    Report  on  the  systems. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

E.  H.  Gardner:  E/ective  Business  Letters. 
C.  H.  Raymond:   Modern  Business  Writing. 
C.  B.  Hotchkiss  and  E.  J.  Kilduff ;  Advanced  Business  Corre- 
spondence, 


CHAPTER  X 

JOURNALISTIC   EXPOSITION — THE   NEWSPAPER 

Kinds  of  Periodicals.  Next  to  business  letters, 
the  man  in  technical  work  will  be  called  upon  most 
frequently  to  write  some  copy  for  newspapers, 
magazines,  or  trade  journals.  The  first  of  these 
includes  the  daily  and  the  weekly  paper,  whose 
primary  purpose  is  the  publication  of  current  news. 
It  has  the  least  connection  of  the  three  with  tech- 
nical exposition,  because  the  printing  of  news  is 
often  a  mere  stating  of  facts  without  much  of 
explanation  involved.  The  second  type  includes 
all  sorts  of  so-called  popular  magazines,  but  for 
our  consideration  will  be  narrowed  to  the  informa- 
tive magazines,  barring  the  all-fiction  form.  This 
type  comes  within  the  range  of  technical  writing 
somewhat  more  than  the  newspaper,  because  its 
appeal  is  more  permanent  and  probably  more  dis- 
tinctive than  that  of  a  journal  of  current  events. 
The  third  type  is  a  still  smaller  group,  very  definitely 
within  the  interests  of  the  skilled  workman.  The 


H8  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

three  types  of  publications  have  different  functions 
and  present  different  problems  in  the  treatment 
of  their  material — in  arrangement,  style,  and  use  of 
accessory  matter,  such  as  illustrations,  etc.  All 
of  them  are  worth  brief  study  in  a  textbook  on 
exposition;  the  first  will  be  taken  up  in  this  chap- 
ter, and  the  other  two  in  the  next. 

Journalism.  Journalism  is  now  ranked  as  one 
of  the  professions — a  study  in  itself.  It  is  defined 
as:  the  business  of  managing,  editing,  or  writing 
of  journals  or  newspapers ;  or  according  to  Webster's 
New  International  Dictionary:  the  collection  and 
periodical  publication  of  current  news.  Its  origin 
goes  back  more  than  three  centuries  to  the  first 
newspapers  in  Venice,  Paris,  and  London,  or  even 
farther,  if  we  accept  the  statement  that  the  oldest 
newspaper  known  is  the  Peking  Gazette,  started 
in  1340  as  an  official  bulletin  of  news  in  the  capital 
of  China.  As  the  means  of  intercommunication 
and  transportation  have  developed  in  the  last 
eighty  years,  the  number,  the  quality,  and  the 
influence  of  newspapers  have  increased  wonderfully. 
An  interesting  study  might  be  made  of  a  comparison 
of  American  and  European  newspapers,  and  of  the 
injurious  and  beneficial  effects  of  the  newspaper; 
but  these  are  outside  the  province  of  our  discussion 
here.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  note  the  fact  that 
preparation  for  the  profession  of  journalism  is  now 
taken  from  the  apprenticeship  plan  of  the  earlier 


THE  NEWSPAPER  149 

days  and  transferred  to  schools  or  to  departments 
of  universities.  The  first  such  school  was  the 
Joseph  Pulitzer  School  connected  with  Columbia 
University  in  New  York  City,  founded  in  1903, 
opened  in  1912.  By  1915  there  were  thirty-nine 
colleges  or  universities  in  this  country  that  offered 
courses  in  journalism,  with  seventy-two  teachers 
and  more  than  two  thousand  students.  Not  all 
of  these  aim  to  prepare  the  students  for  a  profes- 
sional career,  and  those  that  do  not  have  separate 
departments  of  journalism  place  the  courses  offered 
under  the  Department  of  English,  thereby  em- 
phasizing the  training  in  composition  more  than 
the  professional  purposes.  Even  high  schools  give 
instruction  in  journalism,  often  in  connection  with 
work  on  the  school  monthly  publication.  For  men 
who  have  already  decided  upon  a  scientific  or 
engineering  career,  the  details  of  instruction  in 
journalism  have  no  particular  interest.  There  are, 
however,  several  phases  of  the  subject  that  are 
helpful,  and  that  come  distinctly  under  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  of  expository  writing. 

The  Contents  of  the  Newspaper.  The  connection 
of  exposition  with  journalism  is  brought  out  by 
examining  the  range  of  the  contents  of  the  daily 
newspaper.  In  1915  Doctor  Wilcox  tabulated  the 
contents  of  one  hundred  and  ten  dailies  from  all 
sections  of  the  United  States.  He  chose  five  head- 
ings and  found  the  proportions  of  the  material  to  be: 
11 


TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

News 55.3 

War 17.9 

General 21.8 

Special 15.6 

Advertisements 32.1 

Opinion 7.1 

Editorial 3.9 

Letters 3.2 

Illustrations 3.1 

Literature 2.4 

100.0 

J.  E.  Rogers,  The  American  Newspaper,  p.  48. 

Of  course,  war  news  bulked  large  during  the  period 
of  the  war;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  general 
news  would  absorb  about  as  much  space  as  was 
given  to  the  war  news,  when  we  consider  it  in  pro- 
portion to  the  total  contents  of  the  papers.  There 
is  no  reason  to  think  that  the  relative  amounts  of 
material  would  vary  greatly  at  any  time  or  even 
at  any  season  of  the  year.  Of  the  classes  named  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  news,  practically  all  of 
the  editorials,  and  some  of  the  advertisements  come 
under  exposition.  A  separate  chapter  will  be  de- 
voted to  the  discussion  of  exposition  in  advertising; 
this  chapter  will  discuss  the  application  of  exposition 
to  news  articles  and  editorials. 

The  News  Item.  The  training  of  a  reporter  in 
writing  his  news  story  brings  out  a  definite  struc- 
ture which  is  unique  in  composition.  Ordinarily  a 
theme  or  essay  has  an  introduction  that  leads  up 


THE  NEWSPAPER  151 

to  the  essential  points  of  the  discussion,  and  estab- 
lishes definitions,  point  of  view,  or  some  historical 
fact.  But  the  plan  of  the  news  item  is  to  have  an 
initial  paragraph,  which  is  usually  a  single  sentence, 
that  gives  all  the  essential  facts  underlying  the 
item,  or  in  effect  the  real  news  of  the  item  in  con- 
densed form.  The  succeeding  paragraphs  give  the 
details  of  the  incident  being  related,  preferably  in 
the  order  of  their  importance,  rather  than  in  their 
chronological  order.  Such  an  organization  of  ma- 
terial is  not  acceptable  when  judged  by  rhetorical 
principles,  and  to  many  people  is  quite  unsatis- 
factory in  its  logic.  The  plan  is  designed  to  accom- 
plish two  things,  both  of  them  desirable  and  nec- 
essary from  the  standpoint  of  the  newspaper:  (i) 
to  allow  the  make-up  editor  to  cut  the  story  to 
any  desired  length  to  suit  the  demands  of  a  later 
edition,  without  necessitating  the  rewriting  of  the 
whole  account;  (2)  to  allow  the  reader  to  gain  the 
main  points  of  the  story  at  the  very  beginning, 
without  having  to  read  the  whole  detailed  account. 
This  opening  paragraph  is  called  the  lead,  from  the 
idea  of  leading  the  reader  to  the  gist  of  the  news 
at  once.  The  lead  should  answer  such  questions  as 
Who?  When?  What?  How?  Where?  and  Why?  the 
order  of  these  points  of  information  depending 
upon  the  reporter's  judgment  of  the  significance  of 
the  facts  involved.  In  one  instance  it  may  be  the 
person,  in  another  the  place,  in  still  another  some 


1 52  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

peculiar  happening,  etc.  Examples  of  a  typical 
lead  are: 

NEW  YORK,  Aug.  10. — John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  with  his 
wife  and  daughter,  will  leave  New  York  to-morrow  for  China 
for  the  dedication  of  new  buildings  of  the  Peking  Union 
Medical  college,  erected  by  the  China  medical  board  of  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation. 

Dr.  George  E.  Vincent,  president  of  the  Foundation,  and 
Dr.  William  H.  Welsh  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  will  accom- 
pany him. 

BOSTON,  Aug.  10. — X-ray  photographs  taken  to-day  prove 
that  there  is  an  ear-to-ear  passageway  through  the  cranium 
of  Harry  Shanley,  a  wounded  veteran  of  the  Canadian  expedi- 
tionary forces,  who  is  under  treatment  at  the  Massachusetts 
Clinic  for  Diagnosis,  attending  surgeons  announced. 

Six  shoe  buttons  which  he  attempted  to  pass  from  one  side 
of  his  head  to  the  other  became  clogged  and  the  photographs 
taken  for  record  clearly  show  them. 

Three  of  the  buttons  have  been  dislodged.  One  passed 
out  through  his  ear  and  two  through  his  nasal  passage.  Shan- 
ley's  condition  was  said  to  be  serious.  The  phenomenon  was 
caused,  Shanley  said,  by  the  concussion  of  an  exploding  shell 
in  France. 

If  these  points  are  then  taken  up  in  succession  for 
more  detailed  treatment,  the  article  may  be  likened 
to  a  train  of  cars,  the  lead  being  the  engine,  and 
the  discussion  by  paragraphs  being  the  cars.  The 
number  of  cars  is  immaterial — the  effectual  power  is 
in  the  engine.  The  engine  may  even  go  by  itself 
without  any  cars.  The  order  of  such  paragraphs 
as  are  appended  again  depends  upon  the  judgment 
of  the  reporter,  A  local  paper  recently  gave  an 


THE  NEWSPAPER  153 

account  of  the  visit  to  the  city  of  Herbert  Hoover, 
who  came  in  the  interests  of  a  city-wide  financial 
"drive."  Mr.  Hoover  spoke  at  three  meetings — 
morning,  noon,  and  afternoon.  The  lead  gave  a 
quotation  from  one  of  his  speeches,  followed  by  the 
statement  of  where,  when,  by  whom,  and  why  it 
was  said.  Then  other  snatches  of  his  speeches, 
all  three  being  mixed  indiscriminately,  were  given 
in  separate  paragraphs,  followed  by  an  account 
of  the  way  he  was  introduced  at  the  afternoon 
meeting,  and  something  of  the  other  items  on  the 
program,  followed  by  an  account  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  luncheon  meeting  at  noon,  a  briefer 
record  of  the  morning  address,  and  finally  Mr. 
Hoover's  plans  for  the  next  day.  There  was  no 
chronological  continuity  in  the  article,  nor  a  good 
logical  order;  but  it  was  easy  for  a  casual  reader 
to  start  in  at  the  beginning  and  get  the  main  facts 
at  once;  then,  if  his  interest  lagged,  he  could  stop 
almost  anywhere  and  not  miss  the  big  outstanding 
incidents  of  Mr.  Hoover's  visit. 

The  valuable  part  of  any  news  story  is  the  opening 
paragraph  or  two,  or  the  "lead,"  so  far  as  the  ar- 
rangement is  concerned.  It  is  excellent  practice 
in  exposition  to  construct  leads.  Frequently  one 
newspaper  that  has  learned  of  an  event  first  from 
a  rival  newspaper,  will  direct  a  reporter  to  recon- 
struct a  lead  from  the  published  story.  The  point 
of  view  has  changed  with  the  passage  of  time  and 


i54  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

the  differing  circumstances;  the  new  lead  will  be 
phrased  differently,  but  will  tell  the  same  facts. 
Leads  often  lack  seriously  in  smoothness,  but  they 
are  admirable  paragraphs  for  the  elements  of  con- 
densation, accuracy,  and  a  combination  of  expla- 
nation with  narration  that  bring  them  within  the 
range  of  our  attention. 

The  Editorial.  "Newspapers  used  to  be  known 
by  their  editorials,  now  they  are  known  by  their 
headlines,"  said  a  witty  observer.  Although  the 
size  of  the  type  in  the  headlines  and  the  nature 
of  the  phrasing  reveal  to  no  small  extent  the  policy 
of  the  paper,  no  newspaper  neglects  the  editorial 
to  the  point  of  exclusion.  An  editorial  is  defined 
as:  a  short  discussion  of  a  topic  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  publishers  or  the  editors  of  a  paper. 
It  is  primarily  an  expression  of  opinion.  An  editor 
selects  and  arranges  the  material  that  is  printed 
in  a  paper,  and  oversees  the  issuing  of  the  paper. 
Editors  are  students  of  public  affairs,  perhaps  of  a 
limited  sphere,  but  nevertheless  of  a  definite  de- 
partment of  current  news,  and  therefore  their 
opinions  represent  some  of  the  ablest  and  most 
influential  leaders  we  have. 

Not  all  editorials  are  expository,  but  a  large 
proportion  of  them  are.  Some  give  an  historical 
review,  some  are  purely  descriptive,  some  are  argu- 
mentative, and  some  are  merely  miscellaneous 
comment.  Generally  speaking,  editorials  are  more 


THE  NEWSPAPER  155 

carefully  written  than  news  items,  because  they 
present  the  mature  thought  of  thoughtful  men. 
They  have  a  literary  style  that  makes  them  im- 
portant for  the  student  of  composition.  They  also 
show  an  organization  of  material  that  makes  them 
models  in  writing.  The  most  satisfactory  analysis 
of  the  editorial  form  shows  the  following  plan : 

1.  A  general  statement  of  the  field. 

2.  A  specific  instance  within  that  field. 

3.  The  discussion. 

4.  An  application  or  conclusion. 

These  four  points  are  not  necessarily  so  para- 
graphed, although  any  multiplication  of  para- 
graphs will  be  more  likely  to  come  in  Point  3  than 
in  the  others.  The  treatment  of  the  points  may 
vary  greatly  in  length,  the  second  and  last  being 
more  likely  to  be  briefer  than  the  others.  Some- 
times the  first  point  is  omitted,  the  editorial 
plunging  at  once  into  the  definite  point  that  called 
forth  the  comment.  The  following  are  good  ex- 
amples of  editorials,  the  second  one  showing  the 
omission  of  the  general  statement,  and  the  first 
one  having  two  paragraphs  devoted  to  discussion: 

A  FADING  BEACON 

Dayton,  which  for  some  years  has  been  held  up  as  an  ex- 
ample of  an  industrial  city  thriving  and  contented  under  a 
city-manager  form  of  government,  is  likely  to  lose  its  distinc- 
tion if  the  result  of  Tuesday's  primary  election  is  taken  as 
representative  of  public  sentiment  on  the  question. 


i56  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Under  the  Dayton  charter  six  members  of  the  commission 
were  nominated  on  Tuesday,  three  of  the  six  to  be  elected  in 
November.  Of  the  nine  or  ten  candidates  for  the  six  nomina- 
tions, three  were  Socialists  opposed  to  the  manager  plan,  three 
were  supported  actively  by  the  Citizens'  league  as  men  favor- 
able to  the  manager  plan,  while  another  group  of  three  called 
themselves  independents  and  were  considered  none  too  friendly 
to  the  manager  plan,  if  not  actually  opposed  to  it. 

The  three  Socialists  led  the  ticket,  the  three  independents 
came  next  and  not  one  of  the  Citizens'  league  candidates  got 
on  the  ticket. 

As  pointed  out  by  a  Plain  Dealer  correspondent  last  week, 
the  fight  in  Dayton  involved  two  questions — whether  the  new 
commission  should  be  friendly  or  hostile  to  the  manager 
plan,  and  whether  a  charter  amendment  abolishing  the  man- 
ager plan  should  be  adopted.  The  election  on  the  amendment 
has  not  yet  been  held,  but  the  result  of  Tuesday's  primary 
indicates  rough  going  for  the  manager  advocates  when  the 
amendment  comes  to  an  issue  at  the  polls. 

It  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  anti-Socialist  vote,  which  was 
divided  between  opposing  tickets  at  the  primary,  will  be  strong 
enough  in  November  to  keep  the  commission  out  of  Socialist 
control,  but  the  primary  vote  appears  significant  of  a  decided 
change  of  sentiment  in  Dayton  since  John  H.  Patterson  put 
the  city  on  a  hill. 

SAVE  THE  OREGON 

The  old  battleship  Oregon,  which  thrilled  all  Americans  in 
1898  by  making  her  great  voyage  of  more  than  13,000  miles 
to  get  into  the  fighting  in  the  Caribbean,  has  reached  the  age 
limit  and  is  ready  to  suffer  the  tragic  fate  prescribed  for  anti- 
quated naval  vessels.  It  will,  unless  some  one  in  authority 
rules  to  the  contrary,  be  taken  out  to  some  safe  anchorage  and 
used  as  a  target  by  the  naval  youngsters.  It  is  a  pitiful  fate 
for  so  noble  a  vessel.  The  name  of  the  Oregon  is  connected 
with  one  of  the  finest  records  of  the  American  navy,  and  it 
seems  almost  a  sacrilege  to  doom  tfre  aged  and  honored  ship 


THE  NEWSPAPER  157 

to  the  indignity  of  target  service  and  a  final  burial  in  the 
ocean's  boneyard. 

The  state  of  Oregon  is  very  proud  of  the  old  ship  that  bears 
her  name.  Oregonians  have  petitioned  that  the  Oregon  be 
given  to  Oregon  to  be  preserved  as  a  state  relic  and  monument. 
The  petition  merits  favorable  consideration,  but  the  further 
suggestion  that  the  state  relic  be  preserved  at  national  expense 
is  not  worthy  at  all.  If  Oregon  really  desires  to  save  the 
Oregon  she  ought  to  be  willing  to  care  for  the  steel-clad  patriarch. 

No  American  vessel  that  took  part  in  the  World  War  and 
few  that  participated  in  the  Civil  War  left  so  honored  a  name 
as  that  of  the  Oregon.  Not  since  the  days  of  John  Paul  Jones 
has  the  American  imagination  been  so  stirred  by  the  exploits 
of  an  American  ship.  Give  the  Oregon  to  Oregon,  by  all  means, 
and  let  Oregon  have  the  caring  for  her  ancient  and  honorable 
namesake.  (From  the  Cleveland  Plain  Dealer.') 

The  writing  of  editorials  is  excellent  practice 
because  of  the  qualities  of  exposition  involved  and 
the  necessity  for  organizing  the  material  to  accom- 
plish a  definite  end.  The  reading  of  editorials  in 
a  good  daily  paper  is  a  valuable  habit,  because  of 
its  aid  in  the  cultivation  of  literary  appreciation 
and  the  broadening  of  one's  intellectual  horizon. 

The  Work  of  Editing.  There  are  a  few  details 
in  journalism  that  may  be  worth  a  brief  mention 
for  the  benefit  of  any  that  may  have  the  editing 
of  copy  to  undertake.  The  first  point  is  the  plan- 
ning of  space ;  an  editor  has  a  fixed  amount  of  space 
to  fill,  and  must  select  and  arrange  his  available 
material  to  fit  the  space.  A  little  practice  in  esti- 
mating the  number  of  words  to  a  column  or  a  page 
Js  sufficient  to  give  one  a  correct  judgment  of 


1 58  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

quantity  of  material,  and  perhaps  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  own  copy  to  suit  his  needs.  A  second 
point  is  the  assignment  of  certain  material  to 
definite  places  in  the  final  sheet  or  book.  This 
includes  the  decision  as  to  relative  order,  allocation 
of  columns,  width  of  columns,  especially  in  special 
instances,  and  making  up  the  "dummy,"  as  a 
model  form  of  diminutive  size  is  called.  A  third 
point  is  the  choice  of  headings.  In  all  large  news- 
papers the  headlines  are  written  by  one  man,  who 
strives  to  pick  expressive  words  that  show  action 
and  are  not  ambiguous;  a  verb  is  almost  always 
found  in  a  headline,  and  all  verbs  are  in  the  present 
tense.  A  fourth  point,  that  of  proof  reading,  has 
already  been  discussed  on  page  89. 

Journalism  and  the  Technical  Man.  The  aver- 
age business  man  spends  a  good  deal  of  time  reading 
a  daily  paper ;  he  can  get  more  out  of  this  reading 
if  he  understands  the  kinds  of  articles  and  their 
organization.  His  writing  for  the  paper  is  not  so 
probable  in  these  days  with  the  ever-present  re- 
porter and  the  insistent  editor  of  to-day's  perfected 
journalistic  machinery.  The  man  in  the  office, 
however,  may  find  it  desirable  to  be  prepared  for 
the  coming  of  the  reporter,  or  for  the  telephone 
call  of  the  city  editor,  by  having  notes  which  em- 
body the  essential  facts  that  will  be  asked  for; 
these  notes  may  well  adopt  the  form  that  journalism 
requires.  In  many  stores  and  factories,  monthly 


THE  NEWSPAPER  159 

or  semi-monthly  papers  are  published  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  employees.  Some  one  in  the  office  must 
oversee  if  not  actually  direct  the  work  of  publish- 
ing the  paper;  and  it  is  not  always  possible  to  have 
a  trained  journalist  for  this  task.  The  work  has 
to  be  combined  with  other  store  or  factory  work. 
Some  of  these  publications  are  excellent  from  every 
point  of  view;  certainly  there  are  great  oppor- 
tunities to  make  a  valuable  aid  of  them  in  factory 
management,  especially  if  some  one  who  not  only 
understands  something  of  the  theory  of  journalism, 
but  who  also  has  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
employees,  can  be  put  in  charge  of  it. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  X 

1.  Clip  a  typical  news  story  and  write  a  comment  showing 
the  detailed  relationship  of  each  paragraph  to  the  lead. 

2.  Clip  an  editorial  that  appeals  to  you,  and  outline  it. 

3.  Write  an  editorial  upon  a  school  topic;  a  local  question; 
a  national  issue. 

4.  Criticize  an  editorial  in  your  school  paper  as  to  its  organiza- 
tion of  material. 

5.  From  the  facts  of  some  school  happening,  write  a  good 
lead. 

6.  Take  an  article  in  your  school  paper  and  rewrite  the  lead 
as  for  a  later  issue  of  the  paper. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

J.  E.  Rogers:   The  American  Newspaper. 
W.  G.  Bleyer:   Newspaper  Writing  and  Editing. 
H.  F.  Harrington  and  T.  T.  Frankenberg:    Essentials  in 
Journalism. 

G.  M.  Hyde:  Newspaper  Reporting  and  Correspondence. 
C.  G.  Ross:   The  Writing  of  News. 


CHAPTER  XI 

JOURNALISTIC  EXPOSITION — THE   MAGAZINE 

Magazine  and  Newspaper.  The  magazine  differs 
from  the  newspaper  in  several  respects,  of  which 
those  that  concern  the  scientific  man  are  related 
to  the  composition  and  to  the  purpose  of  the  two 
types  of  periodicals.  The  newspaper  is  primarily 
the  purveyor  of  current  news,  the  magazine  is 
primarily  a  recorder  of  thought  or  of  interpreta- 
tion of  events,  either  past  or  present.  The  news- 
paper derives  its  chief  value  from  its  timeliness,  the 
magazine  from  the  quality  of  its  thought.  The 
newspaper  must  necessarily  be  prepared  and  sold 
as  speedily  as  is  consistent  with  accuracy,  the 
magazine  is  more  deliberately  produced.  The 
news  stories  of  the  newspaper  are  so  constructed 
that  they  may  convey  their  information  directly, 
the  articles  of  a  magazine  may  show  all  the  care 
and  research  that  go  into  a  book.  The  frequency 
of  publication  suggests  a  superficial  difference;  the 
newspaper  is  either  a  daily,  semi-weekly,  or  at  most 
a  weekly  publication,  a  magazine  is  of  less  fre- 
quent appearance,  the  chief  classes  being  the  week- 


THE  MAGAZINE  161 

lies,  the  monthlies,  and  the  quarterlies.  With 
these  differences  between  the  newspaper  and  the 
magazine,  the  student  will  recognize  at  once  the 
problems  peculiar  to  each. 

Kinds  of  Technical  Periodicals.  The  words  maga- 
zine and  periodical  are  used  here  as  practically 
synonymous.  A  periodical  is  literally  a  publica- 
tion that  is  issued  at  regular  intervals,  and  would 
also  include  the  newspaper.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  is  almost  always  applied  to  the  magazine  type 
of  publication.  The  word  magazine  is  an  Arabic 
word  denoting  ''storehouse,"  and  as  applied  to 
literary  publications  suggests  varied  contents  of 
greater  range  than  would  be  possible  in  the  usual 
newspaper.  The  Sunday  edition  of  many  news- 
papers contains  a  section  called  a  magazine  sec- 
tion, which  has  short  stories  or  installments  of 
longer  novels,  essays,  biographical  sketches,  and 
what  is  called  in  journalism,  "feature  stories," 
which  are  accounts  of  customs,  people,  or  places 
that  have  a  timely  interest  and  yet  are  different 
from  news.  Omitting  those  publications  which 
contain  only  fiction,  we  may  divide  periodicals  into 
three  groups:  the  so-called  popular  magazine,  the 
broadly  scientific  periodical,  and  the  technical  or 
trade  journal.  The  differences  between  members 
of  these  groups  is  largely  in  the  purpose  of  the 
magazines,  only  slightly  in  the  methods  of  organis- 
ing their  material, 


1 62  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

The  Popular  Magazine.  The  popular  magazine 
is  so  named  because  it  appeals  to  people  in  general 
rather  than  to  any  limited  class  of  people.  Almost 
every  issue,  if  not  every  one,  will  have  a  wide  range 
of  subject  matter.  There  will  be,  for  example, 
an  historical  narrative,  some  poetry,  an  essay  on 
a  political  or  economic  topic,  an  account  of  some 
one's  travels,  and  fiction,  both  short  and  serial. 
Exposition  is  illustrated  by  the  essay  and  by  the 
articles  that  explain  the  subjects  of  which  they 
treat.  Picking  up  current  copies  of  such  magazines 
as  Harper's,  Century,  Scribner's,  Everybody's,  Amer- 
ican, or  Saturday  Evening  Post,  all  of  which  are 
examples  of  the  class  under  discussion,  we  find  the 
following  titles  that  illustrate  the  instructional  pur- 
pose of  the  magazines  for  general  readers:  "The 
Way  of  Capital,"  "The  New  British  Empire," 
"The  Natural  Resources  of  Alaska,"  "A  City  of 
Contradictions,"  "The  Mind  in  the  Making." 

Frequently  there  are  special  departments  into 
which  such  articles  are  put,  as,  for  example,  the 
heading,  "Everybody's  Business,"  which  until  re- 
cently appeared  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post,  or, 
"Things  Everyone  Should  Know,"  in  one  of  the 
metropolitan  Sunday  newspapers.  The  following 
titles  are  taken  from  successive  issues  of  the  former: 
"The  Labor  Savers,"  "Our  Last  Undeveloped 
Empire,"  "Watering  Our  Deserts,"  "Oil  from 
Rock  Shale." 


THE  MAGAZINE  163 

Articles  such  as  those  whose  titles  have  been 
quoted  in  the  two  lists  are  meant  for  the  mass  of 
people  who  read.  The  audiences  of  the  popular 
magazines  are  composed  of  people  with  a  common 
school  education,  the  average  Americans,  or  the 
mainstay  of  our  citizenry,  as  such  phrases  are 
usually  used.  Anyone  addressing  this  great  audi- 
ence, then,  must  choose  his  topic,  and  phrase  his 
discussion  of  it  with  a  clear,  vivid  touch.  The 
organization  of  what  he  has  to  say  will  almost 
inevitably  throw  itself  into  the  broad  requirements 
of  all  writing.  The  style — the  diction,  the  vocabu- 
lary, and  the  personal  qualities — will  be  the  test 
of  his  success.  He  must  have  his  readers  in  view 
continually,  adapting  his  discussion  to  the  minds 
of  those  whose  ignorance  of  his  subject  is  extensive, 
and  whose  interest  in  what  he  is  saying  must 
perhaps  be  artificially  stimulated. 

The  Scientific  Periodical.  The  next  group  of 
periodicals  that  we  have  in  mind  appeals  to  a 
much  more  limited  class  of  people.  The  scientific 
periodical  is  one  that  presupposes  an  interest  in 
science  on  the  part  of  its  readers.  It  does  not  need 
to  use  devices  to  stimulate  flagging  or  intermittent 
interest.  It  frankly  implies,  "This  magazine  takes 
for  granted  that  you  already  know  something 
about  science,  and  are  so  interested  in  it  that  you 
will  want  to  find  out  more;  we  aim  to  lead  you  on 
into  the  attractions  of  general  science."  And  yet 


i64  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

the  scientific  periodical  does  not  go  so  far  as  to  say 
that  the  reader  must  have  a  specialized  knowledge 
of  the  field.  The  range  of  material  is  great  enough 
to  include  several  branches  of  science  in  one  peri- 
odical. Examples  of  this  type  are :  Scientific  Amer- 
ican, Scientific  Monthly,  Science,  Illustrated  World, 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  Science  and  Invention, 
and  Popular  Mechanics.  In  these  magazines  are 
articles  that  will  interest  those  people  who  love 
Nature,  those  who  care  for  machinery  and  new 
inventions,  and  those  who  take  up  the  experimental 
phases  of  science  provided  by  physics  and  chemistry. 
The  following  titles  taken  from  one  issue  of.  the 
Scientific  American  will  indicate  the  range  of 
general  scientific  appeal:  "The  Smallest  Animal 
in  Existence,"  "The  Fritton  Decoy — a  Curious 
Method  of  Snaring  Game,"  "The  Attar  of  Roses," 
"Textile  Fibers,"  "The  Salt  Wells  of  China," 
"Evolution  of  the  Golf  Ball,"  "German  Airship 
Construction  During  the  War." 

The  problem  of  a  writer  of  articles  for  this  group 
of  periodicals  is  one  of  organization  or  arrangement 
of  material  rather  than  one  of  vocabulary  or  vivid- 
ness of  style.  The  source  of  appeal  is  transferred 
to  some  extent  at  least  from  the  personal  qualities 
of  a  clever  writer  to  the  possibilities  of  an  attrac- 
tive theme.  The  writer  can  presuppose  some  knowl- 
edge of  subject  matter  and  therefore  of  vocabulary 
on  the  part  of  his  readers,  and  also  a  keener  interest. 


THE  MAGAZINE  165 

The  problem,  then,  is  that  of  securing  a  particular 
subject  capable  of  development  from  a  new  angle, 
or  of  treatment  in  a  thorough  fashion.  The  phras- 
ing of  the  title  and  the  approach  of  the  first  para- 
graph lead  to  a  logical  working  out  of  the  subject 
and  some  definite  conclusions. 

The  Trade  Journal.  The  trade  journal  appeals 
to  a  still  smaller  number  of  readers  and  presup- 
poses a  still  greater  interest.  A  trade  journal  is  a 
periodical  issued  by  persons  in  charge  of  special 
pursuits,  or  for  those  readers  who  are  identified 
with  a  special  business  or  profession.  The  class 
may  properly  include  some  periodicals  that  are 
not  concerned  with  a  trade  in  its  narrower  sense; 
it  will  include  the  official  organs  of  societies  or 
associations  whose  purpose  is  definite  and  whose 
field  is  limited.  Examples  of  trade  journals  are: 
Aeronautics,  Modern  Language  Notes,  Medical  Jour- 
nal, Chemical  Age,  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  and  Power.  The  articles 
that  are  published  in  such  periodicals  are  of  direct 
help  to  the  members  of  the  organization,  or  follow- 
ers of  the  occupation  concerned.  A  person  inter- 
ested in  general  science  would  find  little  in  any  of 
them  to  attract  him.  The  problem  of  the  authors  of 
articles  in  this  class  of  periodicals  is  one  of  both 
subject  matter  and  style.  He  must  present  ma- 
terial that  is  new  or  fresh  and  yet  at  the  same  time 

show  a  method  of  presentation  that  is  effective 
12 


i66  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

with  people  that  are  reading  on  the  subject  con- 
tinually. Some  piece  of  original  research  or  some 
interpretation  of  known  facts  that  is  original  must 
be  the  starting  point  of  the  article.  The  style 
must  avoid  the  dull,  uninteresting  recital  of  facts, 
but  must  embody  the  personal  enthusiasm  of 
achievement.  There  are  two  cautions  necessary: 
first,  the  presupposition  of  the  reader's  knowledge 
must  not  allow  a  neglect  of  carefulness  in  writing; 
the  interest  of  the  reader  will  not  carry  him  over 
loose  or  inaccurate  expression;  and  second,  the 
author's  own  fascination  for  his  subject  must  not 
be  so  blind  as  to  let  him  think  he  can  disregard 
attention  to  the  vehicle  of  his  thought.  Long  de- 
votion to  a  subject  has  more  than  once  led  to 
carelessness  in  the  preparation  of  important  dis- 
cussions of  the  subject.  Excellence  of  composition 
must  be  the  constant  desire  of  a  writer  on  technical 
subjects.  Individuality  of  style  will  not  counter- 
balance any  scientific  untruthfulness,  but  it  will 
be  a  decided  asset  in  addition  to  complete  accuracy 
of  facts.  Choice  of  words  may  not  require  minute 
explanation,  because  of  a  warranted  assumption 
of  knowledge,  but  sentence  structure,  paragraphing, 
outlining,  and  unified  development  will  demand  full 
attention. 

Short  Forms  of  Periodical  Writing.  What  has 
been  said  in  this  chapter  has  applied  especially 
to  long  articles  or  essays;  there  are,  in  addition, 


THE  MAGAZINE  167 

certain  short  forms  that  are  expository  in  nature. 
Most  periodicals  include  paragraphs  of  comment  on 
current  news  in  the  field  covered,  editorials,  book 
reviews,  personal  items,  and  answers  to  queries. 
These  short  forms  present  no  particular  literary 
problems,  but  do  require  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  exposition.  Some  have  already  been 
covered  in  previous  chapters  of  this  book.  The 
chief  difficulties  encountered  are,  first,  adaptation 
to  the  condition  of  the  readers  of  the  periodical, 
and  second,  observance  of  the  essential  qualities 
of  expository  writing. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XI 

1.  Take  the  current  issue  of  any  popular  magazine  and 
group  the  titles  of  all  the  articles  according  to  type. 

2.  Discuss  the  magazines  devoted  to  your  own  department 
of  study. 

3.  Take  some  one  magazine  that  you  habitually  read,  and 
discuss  its  table  of  contents  and  the  organization  of 
material. 

4.  Compare  and  contrast  two  magazines  in  your  department 
of  work. 

5.  Compare  the  weekly  magazines  and  the  monthly  in  regard 
to  style  of  writing  and  method  of  organization. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

J.  B.  Opdycke:  English  of  Commerce. 
A.  Tassin:  The  Magazine  in  America. 
Articles  in  Encyclopedias  under  "Periodical  Literature." 


CHAPTER  XII 

ADVERTISING  AS  A  METHOD   OF  EXPOSITION 

Advertising  and  the  Technical  Writer.  Another 
form  of  writing,  closely  associated  with  a  study 
of  the  periodical,  is  the  advertisement.  Advertise- 
ments are  nowadays  written  by  specialists,  some- 
times men  in  the  employ  of  a  business  firm,  but 
more  frequently  men  connected  with  an  advertising 
agency  that  handles  upon  contract  the  advertising 
of  several  companies.  The  technical  man,  em- 
ployed by  his  firm  for  his  technical  knowledge,  is 
not  expected  to  know  the  details  of  such  a  distinct 
field  as  advertising  has  come  to  be.  But  the  re- 
quirements of  his  work  will  sooner  or  later  bring  to 
him  the  handling  of  the  facts  that  go  into  his 
firm's  advertising,  or  the  purchasing  of  supplies 
based  in  part  upon  the  advertising  of  other  firms. 
In  either  case  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  under- 
lying advertising  is  necessary.  And  further,  the 
theoretical  study  of  exposition  cannot  remain  silent 
in  regard  to  this  important  subject,  inasmuch  as 


ADVERTISING  169 

one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  advertising 
is  making  a  clear  explanation  of  a  product  for 
sale. 

Definition  of  Advertising.  Advertising  may  be 
defined  as  the  art  of  giving  information  concerning 
the  quality  or  price  of  any  article  or  service  that 
is  for  sale.  The  word  comes  from  the  Latin  ad — 
toward,  and  vertere — to  turn ;  it  suggests,  therefore, 
the  attempt  to  turn  attention  to  something;  to 
make  an  announcement  or  a  notice  that  will  draw 
attention.  Advertising  has  been  characterized  in 
a  brief  way  as  "organized  salesmanship,"  or  "silent 
salesmanship,"  or  "the  seller's  signpost  to  the 
buyer."  It  is  an  art,  and  yet  like  all  arts  is  based 
on  a  distinct  science.  Somewhat  easier  to  define 
is  an  advertisement.  A  satisfactory  definition, 
broad,  and  at  the  same  time  exact,  is  this:  Any 
means  by  which  a  product  is  attractively  exhibited 
to  a  customer.  Another  is  this :  An  effective  means 
for  placing  a  salable  article  before  the  minds  of 
prospective  buyers.  Any  adequate  definition  of  an 
advertisement  must  include  a  reference  to  the  com- 
mercial transaction  expected  and  desired.  Adver- 
tising has  to  do  essentially  with  selling — it  may 
be  of  things  or  it  may  be  of  services;  it  may  be  for 
the  securing  of  something  a  person  does  not  have, 
or  it  may  be  for  the  disposing  of  something  he  does 
have.  A  commercial  exchange  is  always  involved. 
It  is  in  this  particular  that  an  advertisement  differs 


170  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

from  an  announcement,  which  is  a  mere  statement 
of  fact  or  conditions  with  no  element  of  appeal  for 
a  sale  or  a  purchase,  except  an  implied  one. 

Kinds  of  Advertisements.  Several  schemes  of 
classifying  advertisements  have  been  advanced. 
It  is  admittedly  difficult  to  devise  a  classification 
which  shall  be  elastic  enough  to  include  the  many 
and  varied  forms  of  modern  advertising,  and  at  the 
same  time  have  the  coherence  of  a  system.  Sub- 
divisions have  to  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  accom- 
plish this.  Probably  as  satisfactory  a  plan  as  any 
is  the  following: 

Stationary  Circulating 

Signs  Newspapers 

Objects  Periodicals 

Displays  Catalogs 

Samples  Letters 

For  the  purpose  of  the  study  of  exposition  the  first 
group  may  be  neglected  entirely,  and  the  second 
group  may  be  discussed  only  in  broad  principles. 
Letters  have  already  been  discussed  in  a  chapter 
by  themselves,  and  catalogs  do  not  so  clearly  in- 
volve exposition.  But  the  printed  advertisement 
in  a  magazine  or  paper  does  present  a  very  inter- 
esting and  important  topic. 

Psychological  Principles.  The  best  studies  of 
advertising  on  its  psychological  side  have  been  made 
by  President  Walter  Dill  Scott  of  Northwestern 


ADVERTISING  171 

University,  published  in  The  Psychology  of  Adver- 
tising, 1910  (Small,  Maynard  &  Company),  and 
Professor  H.  L.  Hollingworth  of  Columbia  in  Adver- 
tising and  Selling,  published  for  the  Advertising 
Men's  League  of  New  York  City,  1913  (D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.).  Their  conclusions  have  been  confirmed 
by  the  experience  of  many  others.  In  summary 
form,  they  find  four  principles  of  psychology  that 
underlie  the  preparation  of  an  advertisement.  In 
the  order  of  their  employment  these  are:  (i)  At- 
tention, that  quality  of  the  human  mind  that  leads 
it  to  respond  to  a  stimulus;  (2)  Association,  that 
quality  that  links  a  new,  incoming  impression  with 
past  experience,  and  identifies  it;  (3)  Suggestion, 
that  quality  that  relates  an  incoming  impression 
to  the  wants  or  desires;  and  (4)  Emotion,  that 
quality  that  leads  to  a  definite  response  or  reaction, 
either  favorable  or  unfavorable.  Transferred  to 
the  function  of  an  advertisement,  these  principles 
mean  that  any  given  advertisement  should  aim: 
(i)  to  secure  the  attention  of  the  reader;  (2)  to 
hold  that  attention  until  the  whole  advertisement 
has  been  read;  (3)  to  create  a  desire  in  the  mind  of 
the  reader  for  the  articles  advertised;  and  (4)  to 
induce  (favorable)  action  in  regard  to  the  purchase 
of  the  article.  Condensed  still  further,  these  four 
principles  may  be  put  in  the  imperative  form,  with 
reference  to  a  definite  advertisement,  as:  Look, 
Learn,  Like,  Buy. 


172  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

The  Construction  of  an  Advertisement.  The  psy- 
chological principles  mentioned  rest  upon  an  analy- 
sis of  the  human  mind.  The  construction  of  an 
advertisement  in  keeping  with  the  principles  of 
psychology  is  therefore  a  complex  task.  The  writer 
of  an  advertisement  must  recognize  the  normal 
action  of  the  mind  of  a  prospective  buyer — maybe 
only  an  average  person,  sometimes  a  member  of  a 
special  class.  Human  nature  is  much  the  same, 
whatever  the  class  or  occupation  may  be.  The 
writer  of  an  advertisement  must  also  remember 
that  the  printed  advertisement  does  not  have. the 
possibilities  that  belong  to  a  salesman  in  taking 
advantage  of  any  favorable  circumstances,  or  in 
forestalling  any  unfavorable  condition.  The  printed 
advertisement  has  to  stand  in  a  more  or  less  stereo- 
typed form.  The  writer  must  use  certain  mechan- 
ical means  to  carry  out  his  knowledge  of  psychology ; 
the  differing  principles  have  their  appropriate  con- 
structions in  form.  The  writer's  aim  is  always  to 
sell  the  product;  his  method  is  to  set  forth  its 
advantages  or  some  one  good  point  in  it,  in  a  clear 
and  convincing  fashion.  This  is  exactly  the  prob- 
lem of  the  writer  of  exposition  narrowed  to  the  field 
of  salesmanship.  The  means  at  his  disposal  may 
be  grouped  according  to  the  psychological  prin- 
ciples, and  are  here  tabulated  as  suggestive  rather 
than  exhaustive. 


ADVERTISING 


173 


Principles  of 
Psychology 


Application  to 
Advertising 


Means  Used  in  an 
Advertisement 


Attention 


Association 


Suggestion 


Emotion 


Attract  the  at- 
tention 


Hold  the  atten- 
tion 


Create  a  desire 


Induce  action 


Pictures,  color,  head- 
lines, catch  phrases, 
mottoes,  border,  mar- 
gin, style  of  type,  bit 
of  design. 

Description  of  the  ar- 
ticle, advantages,  con- 
verging lines,  arrows, 
hands,  unusual  ar- 
rangement. 

Comparisons,  bit  of  rea- 
soning, sense  of  obli- 
gation, profit  or  ad- 
vantage to  purchaser. 

Address,  nearest  store 
or  branch,  coupons, 
offer  of  catalog,  spe- 
cial time  offer,  sea- 
sonable appeal,  visit 
of  salesman. 


The  combination  of  these  elements  in  any  particular 
advertisement  is  a  matter  for  the  best  judgment  and 
literary  and  artistic  sense  of  the  copy  writer.  Prin- 
ciples rather  than  rules  can  be  laid  down.  The 
vehicle,  i.  e.,  the  kind  of  a  magazine  or  paper  that 
will  print  the  advertisement,  the  kind  of  audience 
it  reaches,  the  seasonable  nature  of  the  product, 
the  market  conditions,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
product  in  all  its  values  and  uses  must  be  con- 


i74  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

sidered.  The  order  of  the  four  points  mentioned 
should  be  observed  carefully  and  a  selection  made 
of  the  best  means  to  meet  and  to  fulfill  each  one. 

In  addition  to  the  considerations  based  upon  the 
principles  of  psychology,  there  are  a  few  others  that 
are  important  for  the  writer  of  advertisements. 
First,  the  size  and  the  proportion  of  the  dimensions 
of  the  advertisement.  The  cost  of  advertising  has 
generally  been  based  upon  the  agate  line — i.  e., 
a  line  of  type  of  column  width,  set  in  agate  type. 
Some  of  the  so-called  "want  ads"  are  charged  on 
the  basis  of  the  number  of  words;  some  of  the  full- 
page  advertisements  are  given  page,  half-page,  or 
double-page  rates.  A  new  method  has  been  used 
with  success  based  upon  the  circulation  of  the 
periodical  and  the  number  of  lines  used.  A  new 
word  has  been  coined  to  name  the  unit  of  measure : 
milline,  which  is  explained  to  mean  one  agate  line 
circulated  one  million  times,  whose  cost  is  found  by 
dividing  the  cost  of  each  agate  line  by  the  circu- 
lation. As  for  proportion  of  dimensions,  the  best 
is  considered  to  be  three  to  five.  Magazines  are 
mostly  of  three  distinct  sizes:  6>^  by  10,  illustrated 
by  Harper's;  9  by  12,  illustrated  by  the  American; 
and  ii  by  15^,  illustrated  by  the  Scientific  Amer- 
ican. Each  of  these  has  close  to  the  three-by-five 
proportion. 

A  second  important  point  is  the  centering  of 
the  strategic  part  of  the  copy  at  the  optic  center 


ADVERTISING  175 

of  the  page.  Psychological  tests  have  shown  that 
the  eye  of  a  person  falls  naturally  at  a  point  in  the 
middle  from  left  to  right,  and  about  two-fifths  of 
the  vertical  distance  from  the  top  of  the  page. 
This  point,  just  above  the  center  of  the  page,  is 
called  the  optic  center,  and  is  the  point  at  which 
some  important  element  of  the  advertisement  should 
be  placed,  generally  the  element  that  fulfills  the 
third  of  the  principles  of  psychology,  that  of  Sug- 
gestion. Third,  is  the  question  of  the  use  of  white 
space,  or  the  proportion  of  printing  to  whole  space 
available.  In  a  full-page  advertisement  a  larger 
percentage  of  white  space  can  be  used  to  advantage 
than  in  a  half-  or  quarter-page  advertisement.  Of 
course,  it  is  best  not  to  overload  a  given  space,  or 
to  try  to  say  everything  that  can  be  said  about  the 
article  in  any  one  insertion.  Finally,  there  is  the 
determination  of  the  length  of  line  and  the  size  of 
type.  This  is  a  matter  upon  which  the  expert 
advice  of  a  printer  is  of  value,  but  the  wishes  of 
the  writer  of  the  advertisement  should  be  intelli- 
gent, founded  upon  sound  reasons.  It  is  undesir- 
able to  have  too  many  varieties  of  type  in  the  same 
advertisement,  or  lines  that  go  all  across  a  wide 
page. 

The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Advertisement.  The  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  effective  advertising  do  not 
vary  materially  from  those  of  effective  exposition. 
They  may  be  stated  here  as:  truthfulness,  clear- 


1 76  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

ness,  conciseness,  and  human  appeal.  The  ethical 
standard  of  modern  advertising  is  very  high;  inac- 
curate or  misleading  copy  is  condemned  not  only 
in  theory,  but  also  in  practice.  The  literary  stand- 
ard is  improving  all  the  time.  It  is  no  longer  con- 
sidered good  taste  to  use  colloquialisms  or  un- 
grammatical  forms  in  advertising  copy.  A  careful 
selection  of  words,  especially  descriptive  adjectives, 
is  recognized  as  having  an  important  bearing  on 
the  effectiveness  of  the  advertisement.  Just  as 
there  is  a  tendency  to-day  toward  better  artistic 
sense  in  advertisements,  there  is  a  tendency  toward 
better  English.  There  are  also  marked  tendencies 
toward  a  higher  plane  of  ethics  and  toward  the 
human  interest  appeal.  Some  examples  of  effective 
English  in  advertising  copy  are  the  following : 

EXAMPLES  OF  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  WORDS  IN  ADVERTISEMENTS 

"The  new  grouping  of  dials  and  switches,  the  improved 
windshield  and  ventilating  arrangements,  the  new  and  unusual 
steering-wheel,  will  impress  experienced  car -owners  as  distinct 
betterments" 

"The  fruits  and  other  ingredients  are  delicious,  fresh,  and 
wholesome — such  as  you  would  select  for  your  own  table  use." 

"Floors  and  walls  damaged  by  leaking,  hissing  air  valves 
on  your  radiators.  Peace  and  quiet  ruined  by  pounding, 
banging  pipes.  Comfort  destroyed  by  air-bound,  ice-cold 
radiators.  Bank  account  ravaged  by  big  coal  bills!" 

"Alert  in  style." 

"Everything  will  come  back  with  through  and  through  clean- 
ness. .  .  .  Everything  will  come  back  correctly  and  daintily 
folded." 


ADVERTISING  177 


The  ruggedness  of  Webster  equipment 
has  deservedly  given  it  high  rank  for  de- 
pendable performance  in  meeting  the 
exacting  demands  for  long,  hard  usage. 
Its  resistance  to  depreciation  is  a  factor 
of  great  importance  in  solving  the  prob- 
lem of  moving  materials  quickly  and 
economically.  It  is  just  this  distinction 
which  makes  Webster  equipment  an 
economical  investment,  for  true  ma- 
chinery economy  comes  from  an  ability 
to  give  the  utmost  in  service  at  a  mini- 
mum cost  for  repairs  and  overhauling, 
thus  preventing  the  serious  handling 
interruptions  which  are  such  costly  items 
in  production.  In  this  respect,  alone, 
Webster  equipment  affords  unusual  satis- 
faction. 

It  is  logical,  therefore,  that  Webster 
material  handling  equipment  should  ap- 
peal to  buyers  of  labor  conserving 
machinery. 

If  you  have  an  elevating  or  conveying 
problem,  why  not  solve  it  NOW— with 
the  assistance  of  engineering  specialists 
and  a  factory  having  an  uninterrupted 
service  record  of  over  forty  years. 


A  Stop  Loss  Order 


AS  the  coal  bill  foots  up  monthly 
-Z~\.  to  undreamed  of  heights,  those 
who  pay  are  ringing  the  emergency 
signal  in  the  boiler  room.  "Keep 
up  the  steam  pressure"  has  been 
superseded  by — "Make  every  pound 
of  coal  do  its  duty." 

The  Venturi  24-hour  chart  not  only 
reveals  costly  methods  of  boiler 
operation  but  affords  a  constructive 
guide  for  changing  methods  of  fir- 
ing, draft  regulation,  feed  water, 
control,  and  stoker  speed.  Thou- 
sands of  plants  are  vastly  benefited 
in  these  high-priced  fuel  days  by  the 
completeness  of  the  Venturi's  day 
land  night  information. 

Every  order  for  a  Venturi  is  a  Stop 
Loss  Order. 

Bulletin  No.  197,  "Why   Your 

Power  Plant  Needs  a  Venturi"— 

is  ready. 


ADVERTISING  179 

"Where Grease  is  used,  not  only  are  oiling  costs  cut 

to  the  core,  but  infinitely  better  lubrication  is  secured.  .  .  ." 

"  Throughout,  the  magazine  is  embellished  with  artistic  treat- 
ment of  superb  character." 

"  If  the  advertising  misrepresents  the  product,  by  creating  an 
ugly  and  amateurish  impression,  it  is  a  drag  and  not  a  tractor." 

(Italics  not  in  originals.) 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XII 

1.  Clip  an  effective  advertisement  from  a  magazine  and 
make  a  list  of  the  means  by  which  it  has  applied  the  prin- 
ciples of  psychology  mentioned  in  this  textbook. 

2.  Compare  two  different  successive  advertisements  of  the 
same  company  in  the  same  magazine. 

3.  Construct  as  effective  an  advertisement  as  you  can  for 
some  product  you  are  familiar  with. 

4.  Look  up  the  history  of  advertising. 

5.  Criticize  the  following  definitions  of  an  advertisement: 

a.  A  description  of  an  article  for  sale,  placed  where  the 
general  public  will  see  it. 

b.  A  means  by  which  a  product  is  attractively  exhibited 
to  a  customer. 

c.  An  effective  means  for  placing  a  salable  article  before 
the  minds  of  prospective  buyers. 

d.  Anything  that  calls  attention  to  something  for  sale. 

e.  A  written  statement  which  tends  to  increase  the  out- 
put of  a  certain  article  by  convincing  the  "reader  that 
the  article  is  the  best. 

f.  A  combination  of  pictures,  figures,  and  literature  made 
up  for  the  purpose  of  selling  something. 

g.  The  means  of  bringing  before  the  minds  of  prospective 
buyers  the  qualities  of  any  salable  article,  services 
included. 

6.  Take  several  advertisements  and  underline  the  unusual 
or  most  suggestive  words.    What  part  of  speech  are  these 
words?    What  is  their  derivation  or  formation?    Can  you 
find  synonyms  that  would  do  just  as  well? 


i8o  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

W.  D.  Scott:    The  Psychology  of  Advertising. 

S.  R.  Hall:    Writing  an  Advertisement. 

J.  B.  Opdycke:   News,  Ads.,  and  Sales. 

D.  Starch:  Advertising. 

H.  Tipper:  Advertising. 

Current  issues  of  Printers'  Ink  and  Printers'  Ink  Monthly. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

TECHNICAL  REPORTS 

Definition.  Another  form  of  writing  frequently 
used  by  the  technical  man  is  the  report.  By 
derivation  the  word  "report"  means  "an  account 
brought  back"  (Century  Dictionary),  or  at  some- 
what greater  length,  "a  statement  or  relation  of 
facts  given  in  reply  to  inquiry,  as  the  result  of 
investigation,  or  by  a  person  authorized  to  examine 
and  to  bring  or  send  information"  (Century  Dic- 
tionary). It  is  distinguished  from  an  essay  in 
that  is  is  based  upon  an  assignment.  It  implies 
the  previous  commission  of  a  task,  or  an  accepted 
responsibility  for  a  piece  of  work.  Further,  it 
represents  personal  effort,  either  in  regard  to  the 
task  itself,  or  else  in  regard  to  an  investigation  of 
work  done  by  some  one  else.  Engineering  reports 
are  not  different  from  other  reports  except  that  the 
nature  of  the  work  done  is  in  the  field  of  engineer- 
ing, or  that  the  investigator  is  a  trained  engineer. 
The  same  would  be  true  of  agricultural  reports, 
architectural  reports,  or  medical  reports.  The  two 
essential  elements  of  a  report  are,  in  summary,  a 
13 


i82  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

definite  authorization  and  a  personal  participation 
in  the  work  involved. 

Types  of  Reports.  A  classification  of  reports 
would  give  us  three  clearly  marked  types:  Re- 
search, Recommendation,  and  Progress  Reports. 
The  Research  report  is  one  whose  primary  object 
is  to  give  information  upon  a  subject.  There  is  a 
specific  piece  of  work  to  be  done,  and  the  report 
gives  the  account  of  that  work.  It  aims  to  make  a 
contribution  to  the  knowledge  about  the  subject 
reported  upon.  It  is  based  upon  a  study  of  all  that 
is  involved  in  the  subject.  The  subject  may  be  a 
test  or  an  experiment,  information  about  which 
will  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  workers  in  that  field; 
the  subject  may  be  some  question  of  theory,  or  of 
legal  right,  or  of  scientific  principle,  a  discussion 
of  which  will  throw  light  upon  the  matter;  or  the 
subject  may  be  some  piece  of  work  performed  by 
another  and  now  investigated  and  made  the  basis 
of  comment.  All  of  these  forms  imply  both  a 
studious  interest  in  the  topic,  and  some  commercial 
or  official  responsibility.  The  Recommendation  re- 
port involves  much  of  what  is  contained  in  a 
Research  report,  with  the  addition  that  a  course 
of  action  is  outlined.  A  policy  is  at  stake,  and  the 
report  examines  the  bases  of  several  policies,  con- 
cluding with  the  choice  of  some  one.  There  may 
be  several  possibilities,  of  which  one  is  selected 
for  recommendation.  The  subject  may  be  a  series 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  183 

of  tests  in  a  laboratory,  a  new  industrial  device, 
or  a  study  of  methods  of  efficiency,  or  the  alterna- 
tives of  types  of  construction;  the  report  will 
review  the  various  possibilities,  and  will  present 
evidence,  with  reasons,  for  some  one  of  them.  More 
than  the  other  types  of  reports,  the  Recommenda- 
tion report  will  bring  in  argumentation.  The 
Progress  report  is  one  that  covers  a  certain  portion 
or  period  of  the  work  in  question.  It  is  a  routine 
report  of  an  official,  or  a  periodic  report  covering 
work  up  to  a  certain  stage  of  completion  or  point 
of  time.  It  is  essentially  a  report  giving  informa- 
tion, but  it  is  limited  to  work  for  which  there  is 
more  or  less  official  responsibility.  It  summarizes 
clearly  the  achievements  up  to  date,  implying  more 
work  to  be  done  in  the  future.  It  is  called  forth 
by  legal  or  official  requirements. 

There  is  another  type  of  report,  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  the  Academic  Report,  that  overlaps 
with  the  three  named.  This  type  differs  from  the 
others  in  function,  rather  than  in  organization.  In 
fact,  an  Academic  Report  may  be  a  Research,  or  a 
Recommendation,  or  a  Progress  Report.  It  is  pre- 
pared not  so  much  for  the  information  it  may 
contain  as  for  the  training  it  will  give  to  its  writer. 
The  facts  it  states  will  probably  not  be  a  contri- 
bution to  the  knowledge  of  the  subject,  but  they 
will  add  to  the  information  of  the  reporter.  The 
compiler  rather  than  the  public  is  chiefly  con- 


i84  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

cerned.  This  type  is  distinctly  a  school  exercise, 
but  is  made  as  much  like  the  commercial  report 
as  circumstances  will  permit. 

The  Qualities  of  Reports.  Inasmuch  as  reports 
are  one  of  the  outstanding  forms  of  expository 
writing,  the  qualities  that  we  have  discussed  as 
essential  to  all  exposition  will  be  required  in  re- 
ports. These  qualities  are:  clearness,  accuracy, 
and  unity ;  their  bearing  upon  reports  will  be  quite 
evident.  In  addition  to  these  three  two  more 
should  be  found  in  all  reports:  (i)  completeness, 
and  (2)  the  quality  of  being  analytical.  The 
quality  of  completeness  should  be  found  even  in 
routine  reports,  in  the  sense  that  the  report  must 
cover  the  full  period  indicated,  whether  a  year  or 
quarter  or  whatever  the  case  may  be.  An  annual 
report,  for  example,  must  cover  a  full  twelve 
months,  not  eleven,  or  eleven  and  a  half.  In 
another  sense,  completeness  must  characterize  all 
reports,  in  that  no  portion  of  the  original  assign- 
ment should  be  omitted.  If  a  report  is  to  cover  a 
certain  investigation,  it  must  cover  it  all,  and  not 
neglect  any  portion  of  it.  If  it  does,  the  author 
of  the  report  lays  himself  open  to  the  charge  of 
prejudice,  or  of  carelessness.  The  quality  of  com- 
pleteness must,  however,  be  balanced  by  that  of 
conciseness;  in  other  words,  no  report  should  be 
padded  by  wordy  discussions  that  get  nowhere. 
Such  discussion  as  is  pertinent  to  the  object  of  the 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  185 

report  is  of  course  entirely  in  place;  but  no  other 
discussion  is.  This  quality,  then,  touches  upon 
that  of  unity,  which  means  that  the  writer  must 
not  get  off  his  subject.  The  report  must  be  car- 
ried along  naturally  to  a  full  conclusion  and  yet 
not  be  overloaded  with  details.  The  second  added 
quality  is  that  the  report  must  be  analytical  in  its 
treatment  of  the  subject  matter.  When  a  person 
takes  up  a  report  upon  a  subject,  he  expects  to 
find  the  subject  studied,  examined,  analyzed.  No 
mere  loose  explanation,  no  general  description,  no 
prejudiced  argument  should  be  met.  A  report 
must  attack  a  problem  in  such  a  way  as  to  lay  bare 
the  principles  involved,  and  get  at  the  essence  of 
the  matter.  This  leads  into  the  question  of  the 
arrangement  of  material,  which  will  be  discussed 
separately  in  the  next  paragraph.  Here,  the 
thoroughgoing,  studious  care  with  which  a  reporter 
must  go  into  his  subject  is  meant. 

We  have  spoken  of  qualities  of  the  report ;  there 
are  two  qualities  that  are  personal  that  should  be 
mentioned  briefly.  They  pertain  to  the  reporter 
rather  than  to  the  report  that  he  writes.  They 
are:  (i)  honesty,  and  (2)  neatness.  Honesty  differs 
from  accuracy,  already  included,  in  that  it  in- 
volves the  mental  and  moral  attitude  of  the  writer. 
The  author  of  a  report  should  be  free  from  bias 
or  prejudice.  He  must  approach  his  task  with 
open-mindedness  if  his  conclusions  are  to  be  valued. 


i86  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

An  accurate  report  may  be  written  by  a  dishonest 
man;  an  inaccurate  report  may  be  written  by  an 
honest  man.  Honesty  is  a  matter  of  attitude, 
accuracy  one  of  results.  Neatness  is  another  char- 
acteristic of  the  scientific  man,  whatever  his  par- 
ticular branch.  Whatever  applies  to  work  in  a 
drafting  room  or  an  office,  to  field  notes,  or  to 
laboratory  notes,  will  apply  with  added  force  to 
the  preparation  of  reports.  It  is  very  essential 
that  the  copy  be  legible,  clean,  and  attractively 
arranged. 

The  Organization  of  a  Report.  A  good  deal  has 
been  said  about  the  degree  of  formality  that  must 
be  found  in  a  report.  In  the  last  analysis  the 
question  of  formality  is  one  of  attitude,  rather  than 
of  organization  of  material.  A  writer  of  a  report 
may  have  decided  sympathies  with  the  public  or 
with  laymen,  and  yet  may  feel  it  incumbent  upon 
himself  to  cast  his  facts  and  his  interpretation  of 
them  into  a  more  or  less  generally  accepted  arrange- 
ment. After  all,  formality  means  only  a  wide- 
spread method  of  doing  something;  it  is  an  absence 
of  individuality.  The  striving  after  individuality 
may  lead  one  to  so  loose  an  organization  that  real 
effectiveness  is  lost,  and  at  the  same  time  prove 
offensive  in  its  conceit.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
extreme  attention  to  form  may  be  so  stiff  and  bare 
of  vigor  that  the  overdone  report  will  discourage 
readers  before  they  begin.  There  is  an  ideal  be- 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  187 

tween  these  extremes,  which  involves  the  personal 
approach,  and  presents  the  facts  in  a  skillfully 
organized  fashion.  Such  an  organization  of  ma- 
terial may  well  follow  these  headings,  the  order  of 
which  is  logical : 

i.  An  Introduction.  A  report,  if  it  is  going  to 
carry  out  the  principles  involved  in  its  literal 
meaning,  will  have  a  preliminary  statement  which 
explains  its  authorization,  and  names  the  recipients 
of  the  report.  The  most  common  form  of  such  a 
statement  is  a  note  or  letter  of  transmission,  which 
is  addressed  to  the  individual  or  group  of  indi- 
viduals who  assigned  the  task  being  reported  upon, 
and  the  message  of  which  is  confined  to  notifica- 
tion that  the  task  is  finished,  the  account  of  the 
work  itself  being  embodied  in  the  report.  The 
letter  is  drawn  up  as  any  business  letter  is,  and 
accompanies  the  report ;  if  the  whole  is  printed,  the 
letter  of  transmission  appears  next  to  the  title- 
page.  In  certain  instances,  when  reports  are  short, 
the  report  constitutes  the  body  of  the  letter,  after 
the  announcement  of  the  completion  of  the  work, 
with  the  signature  of  the  reporter  following  as  in 
a  letter.  Instead  of  a  letter  of  transmission  (some- 
times the  word  transmittal  or  transmissal  is  used), 
other  forms  of  introduction  are  found — e.  g.,  a 
statement  of  the  official  relationship  of  the  reporter 
to  the  recipient  of  the  report,  a  list  of  the  personnel 
concerned  with  the  assigning  or  the  preparing  of 


i88  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

the  report;  an  acknowledgment  of  gratitude  for 
assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  report,  or  a 
list  of  books  consulted.  Sometimes  one  or  more 
of  these  forms  is  added  to  a  letter  of  transmission, 
usually  following  it.  If  the  report  is  long,  and  if 
it  is  printed  in  pamphlet  or  book  form,  a  table  of 
contents,  or  a  brief  topical  outline  is  inserted  after 
the  other  forms  of  introduction. 

2.  Statement    of   Object.     The   report   should 
commence  with  a  restatement  of  the  commission, 
either  verbatim,  or  else  as  the  reporter  understood 
it.    Just  what  the  reporter  set  out  to  do,  the  field 
covered  by  the  report,  the  purpose  that  prompted 
the  investigation — properly  come  first.    It  may  be 
of  additional  value  to  state  the  object  of  the  report 
both  negatively  and  positively. 

3.  Summary  of  Results.     It  is  logical  to  place 
next  a  brief  statement  whether  such  an  object  as 
has  been  defined  was  fully  attained  or  not.     The 
conclusions  of  a  Research  report  may  be  put  in 
tabulated  form;   the  recommendations  of  a  Recom- 
mendation report  may  be  listed,  without  comment. 
The  reason  for  putting  such  a  section  of  the  report 
just  here  is  to  save  the  time  of  a  busy  executive, 
who  is  interested  in  results  rather  than  in  methods 
of  reaching  those  results.    He  has  in  mind  a  definite 
inquiry;   now  that  search  has  been  made  for  him, 
he  wants  to  know  the  conclusions  at  once.     At 
some  other  time,  he,  or  perhaps  some  other  official, 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  189 

will  check  the  steps  by  which  those  conclusions 
were  reached.  If  he  has  confidence  in  the  ability 
of  the  person  or  persons  to  whom  the  work  was 
intrusted,  he  will  want  to  come  at  once  to  the 
findings.  The  Summary  of  Results  is  therefore 
placed  near  the  beginning  of  the  report. 

4.  Outline  of  Methods.    In  order  that  a  reader 
may  follow  the  account  of  what  was  done  in  carry- 
ing out  an  assigned  task,  the  writer  of  a  report  will 
tell  the  methods  he  employed.    Conditions  of  work 
are  so  very  important  in  most  scientific  research 
that  they  must  be  stated.    If  instruments  or  any 
apparatus  were  used,  the  various  pieces  must  be 
described,  especially  if  at  all  complicated  or  un- 
usual.    If  two  or  more  people  had  to  work  to- 
gether, the  method  of  co-operation  must  be  ex- 
plained.   If  an  official  has  met  with  any  extraor- 
dinary circumstances  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties, 
he  must  state  them,  for  they  may  affect  his  findings. 

5.  Data  Sheets.     Some  kinds  of  work  involve 
the  taking  of  field  notes  or  observations  or  read- 
ings;   these  or  maybe  other  kinds  of  work  then 
require  reductions  or  calculations  from  these  notes. 
In  so  far  as  important  conclusions  are  based  upon 
them,  it  will  be  desirable  to  preserve  such  notes, 
and,  in  the  case  of  an  original  as  contrasted  with 
a  printed  report,  to  include  them  in  the  report. 
Instead  of  placing  them  at  various  stages  of  the 
discussion,  it  is  better  to  group  these  data  sheets 


IQO  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

into  a  special  section  and'  insert  them  before  the 
discussion.  If  any  question  of  legality  arises  in 
connection  with  a  report,  the  court  recognizes  only 
original  sheets  as  valid.  In  printed  reports,  photo- 
graphs of  data  sheets  are  sometimes  preserved.  If 
either  copies  or  photographs  are  kept,  they  are 
often  put  into  an  appendix,  instead  of  being  made 
a  part  of  the  body  of  the  report. 

6.  Diagrams.    Frequently  the  body  of  a  report 
is  supplemented  by  the  use  of  diagrams,  illustra- 
tions, curve  sheets,  charts,  or  separate  tables.   The 
distinctions   between   these   will   be   discussed   in 
Chapter  XV.     Although  these  may  be  scattered 
through  the  report  at  the  appropriate  places,  they 
may  better  be  put  together  immediately  preceding 
the  discussion.    This  would  more  certainly  be  true 
if  the  diagrams  were  large  enough  to  fill  a  page,  or 
if  there  were  very  many  of  them.    A  variation  of 
practice  in  printed  reports  is  to  place  these  as  well 
as  data  sheets  in  an  appendix. 

7.  Discussion.    The  final  and  in  many  ways  the 
most  important  section  of  a  fully  organized  report 
is  the  discussion.    This  presents  the  details  of  the 
work  covered  by  the  report,  the  steps  by  which  the 
investigator  arrived  at  his  conclusions.     It  may 
not  be  necessary  to  repeat  information  that  has 
already  been  given  in  any  of  the  preceding  sec- 
tions, but  it  will  prove  helpful  to  the  reader  if 
cross  references  are  given  to  any  point  previously 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  191 

stated,  or  to  any  of  the  statistical  matter.  The 
order  of  procedure  will  best  be  chronological,  tracing 
the  work  done  in  fulfillment  of  the  assignment  step 
by  step  and  showing  the  interconnection  of  it  all.  If 
conclusions  or  recommendations  have  been  tabu- 
lated under  Heading  3,  the  proof  or  evidence  for 
them  must  be  presented  here.  Any  one  who  reads 
the  summary  of  the  results  should  be  able,  if  he 
cares  to  know,  to  find  sufficient  reasons  for  those 
conclusions.  The  writer  of  the  report  must  justify 
himself  in  his  conclusions.  The  Discussion  is  the 
part  of  the  report  that  contains  the  reasons  and 
the  account  of  all  the  work  done  in  carrying  out 
the  commission. 

Not  every  report  needs  all  of  these  sections;  the 
subject  matter  will  determine  which  of  them  are 
desirable  to  keep.  The  order  of  the  sections  will 
not  vary  usually  from  the  order  here  given,  and 
no  change  in  order  is  made  even  if  some  are  omitted. 
These  sections  should  be  marked  by  appropriate 
headings  standing  on  separate  lines  and  possibly 
centered  in  the  line.  It  is  not  necessary  to  number 
the  sections. 

Forms  of  Reports.  In  addition  to  the  kinds 
of  reports,  we  must  distinguish  three  forms  of 
reports,  that  is,  in  the  outward  appearance  and 
mechanics  of  reports.  First,  is  the  card-index  form. 
This  means  that  reports  of  information  or  of 
progress  are  made  out  on  prepared  form  cards, 


i92  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

ruled  and  headed  to  indicate  the  facts  wanted. 
The  size  of  card  will  vary  with  the  amount  of 
information  desired  and  the  filing  system  of  the 
persons  using  the  information.  Usual  dimensions 
are  3  by  5,  4  by  6,  5  by  8,  but  the  firms  that  make 
office  and  library  supplies  have  several  stock  sizes 
and  many  styles  of  rulings.  Government  postal 
cards  are  sometimes  used,  approximately  $%  by 
5>2.  The  needs  of  any  business  can  be  met.  Many 
factories  keep  record  of  inventories,  railroads  of 
inspection  work,  offices  of  sales,  schools  of  enroll- 
ment and  grades  on  cards  that  can  be  filed  in 
card-index  cabinets  for  future  reference.  The  con- 
venience of  this  form  of  record  is  apparent. 

vSecond,  is  the  loose-leaf  sheet,  printed  with  uni- 
form headings  and  spaces.  This  form  differs  from 
the  cards  mainly  in  size  and  in  method  of  preserva- 
tion. Generally  speaking,  the  sheets  of  paper  in- 
cluded under  this  form  are  larger  than  the  cards 
included  under  the  first  form.  Sheets  will  vary 
from  the  size  used  in  college  laboratory  experiment 
binders  to  those  18  by  24  inches  or  even  larger. 
Covers  or  binders  are  provided  for  the  sheets  as 
they  accumulate.  The  sheets  are  given  headings 
in  a  uniform  arrangement,  the  reporter  filling  in 
under  the  headings  whatever  information  he  has 
to  offer.  More  extensive  statements  will  be  expected 
here  than  on  the  cards,  where  figures  or  detached 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  193 

words  are  usually  sufficient.  Consequently,  the 
problem  of  correct  usage  will  be  present. 

Third,  is  the  blank-sheet  form  of  report.  This 
means  that  the  reporter  plans  his  report  himself, 
without  printed  headings  or  ruled  spaces  to  guide 
him.  Entire  freedom  is  allowed  so  far  as  the  form 
of  the  report  is  concerned.  Of  course,  the  type- 
writer is  usually  employed  in  preparing  the  report, 
and  the  standard  sizes  of  typewriter  paper  are 
used.  The  most  frequent  is  8>£  by  u,  but  the  legal 
size,  8^2  by  13,  is  also  common.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  crowd  the  work  on  the  paper,  keeping 
headings  clearly  separated  from  paragraph  ma- 
terial, and  names  and  figures  distinct.  Printed 
reports  should  have  the  scheme  of  organization 
clear,  as  is  outlined  in  this  chapter. 

Readers  of  Public  Reports.  Reports  that  are 
printed  for  more  or  less  general  distribution  may 
be  classified  in  a  still  different  way,  according  to 
the  kinds  of  probable  readers.  This  method  of 
classification  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
kinds  or  forms  already  discussed,  overlapping  with 
them  freely.  The  readers  of  public  reports  may  be 
put  into  three  groups:  (i)  people  interested  in  gen- 
eral information;  (2)  people  interested  in  economic 
or  financial  facts;  and  (3)  people  interested  in 
technical  matter.  The  first  class  will  be  those  per- 
sons who  are  active  citizens,  concerned  with  the 
development  and  progress  of  public  enterprises,  who 


i94  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

have  alert  minds  eager  to  keep  informed  about 
present-day  improvements.  The  human  factors  of 
public  enterprise  will  appeal  to  them.  Some  re- 
ports, especially  reports  of  Progress  issued  by  a 
municipal  or  other  public  official,  are  intended 
largely  for  this  class  of  readers.  The  second  class 
will  include  those  persons  who  are  students  of 
economics  or  are  investors  in  public  securities. 
The  practical  phases  of  public  work  appeal  to  them, 
what  returns  there  are,  how  it  affects  human  life 
,or  social  conditions.  The  managers  of  industries, 
the  employers  of  labor,  the  men  with  money  to 
invest  in  business — these  groups  will  also  be  in- 
cluded. The  third  class  will  include  the  specialist, 
the  engineer,  the  technical  man — in  short,  any  per- 
sons that  follow  the  constructional  features  of 
public  work,  the  complex  problems  of  carrying 
on  an  enterprise  successfully.  Many  reports  are 
intended  for  just  this  class  of  readers.  As  J.  H. 
Hammond  remarks:  "In  making  reports  the  young 
engineer  should  present  copious  technical  data  in 
case  the  report  is  to  be  submitted  to  other  engineers, 
but  when  it  is  for  the  capitalist  he  should  have  in 
view  chiefly  the  presentation  of  economic  facts." 
A  slightly  different,  but  not  inconsistent  view,  is 
taken  by  C.  F.  Lee,  who  says:  "The  object  of  a 
report  is  primarily  commercial;  it  is  a  matter  of 
business.  Such  technical  matter  as  is  necessary 
to  clearness  and  completeness  has  place,  but  notb- 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  195 

ing  further.  The  temper  in  which  the  matter  should 
be  approached  is  judicial.  No  personal  bias  or 
feeling  should  enter.  All  should  be  cold,  hard 
facts,  and  the  conclusion  such  as  can  be  justly 
drawn  from  the  facts  stated.  Everything  should 
be  ascertained  with  exactness,  nothing  guessed  at 
or  left  to  chance,  and  no  stone  left  unturned  to  check 
conclusions  in  all  possible  ways.  Pains  taken  in 
this  last  particular  will  save  many  a  costly  blunder." 
An  academic  report  is  printed  to  show  the  form 
of  a  report  adapted  to  practice  work: 

SPECIMEN  OF  A  STUDENT'S  REPORT  ON  A  COMMERCIAL  SUBJECT 

Connellsville,  Pa., 
January  9,  1921. 

Mr.  R.  M.  Burton, 
Consolidated  Coal  Co., 
Connellsville,  Pa. 

Dear  Sir: 

In  compliance  with  your  request  of 
January  3  and  in  confirmation  of  my 
verbal  report  of  January  6,  I  submit 
herewith  a  report  of  my  investigation  of 
the  condition  of  Gallery  No.  30,  on  the 
fifty- foot  level  of  Mine  No.  19,  which 
caught  fire  November  18,  1920. 

Ob j e c t :   To  determine  the  advisa- 
bility of  removing  stoppings. 


i96  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Recommendation:   Prom  the  data  ob- 
tained and  the  methods  used  in  fighting 
the  fire  in  question,  I  do  not  consider 
it  safe  to  remove  the  stoppings  for  at 
least  two  weeks. 

Discussion:   Reference  to  my  report 
of  November  23  will  show  that  the  mine 
was  not  sealed  until  three  days  after 
the  fire  had  started,  and  consequently 
it  gained  great  headway.   Analysis  of  the 
gases  back  of  the  stopping  at  the  east 
end  of  the  gallery,  November  25,  gave  the 
following  results: 

Oxygen  15.1$ 
Carbon  dioxide  3.7$ 
Carbon  monoxide  0.4$ 
Me  thane  5 . 3$ 

Such  an  atmosphere  would  probably 
support  combustion. 

By  December  5  the  composition  had 
changed  to: 

Oxygen  0.5$ 
Carbon  dioxide  4.5$ 
Carbon  monoxide  1.1% 
Methane  6.0$ 

As  this  atmosphere  could  not  pos- 
sibly support  combustion  the  fire  was 
known  to  have  been  extinguished,  but  the 
heat  was  still  considerable. 

On  January  2  the  temperature  was 
low  enough  to  warrant  removal  of  the 
stoppings  without  danger  in  another  week, 
but  on  January  3  a  mine  car  broke  loose 


TECHNICAL  REPORTS  197 

on  the  grade  in  the  gallery  and,  striking 
the  stopping,  dislodged  it  slightly, 
causing  a  leak  of  alarming  size.   After 
the  stopping  had  "been  repaired,  analysis 
of  the  atmosphere  behind  it  revealed  an 
oxygen  content  of  30$.   As  the  tempera- 
ture was  not  normal,  this  quantity  of 
oxygen  might  cause  the  fire  to  break  out 
again.   The  stopping  was  some  distance 
from  the  fire  area  and  consequently  the 
oxygen  present  could  reach  the  fire  only 
by  diffusion,  which  would  probably  re- 
quire about  one  week.   For  the  same 
reason,  a  week  would  be  required  for  the 
effects  of  the  combustion  to  be  detected 
in  case  the  fire  should  break  out  afresh. 
If  at  that  time  analysis  shows  that 
combustion  is  not  taking  place,  the 
stoppings  may  be  removed. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

(Signed)    R.  A.  CORDREY. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIII 

1.  Secure  a  commercial  report,  and  criticize  it  as  to  its 
organization. 

2.  Write  a  report  on  the  studies  required  in  your  course. 

3.  Write  a  report  on  the  equipment  in  one  of  the  school 
laboratories. 

4.  Write  a  report  on  the  heating  system  of  the  school. 

5.  Write  a  report  on  the  lighting  system  of  the  school. 

6.  Write  a  report  on  the  discipline  system  of  the  school. 

7.  Write  a  report  on  the  honor  system. 

8.  Write  a  report  on  the  fire  protection  of  your  school. 

9.  Write  a  report  on  the  traffic  system  at  a  busy  corner. 

BOOK  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 
H.  A.  Watt:   The  Composition  of  Technical  Papers. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SPECIFICATIONS   AND   CONTRACTS 

Definitions.  A  distinction  must  be  made  on  the 
one  hand  between  specifications  and  contracts 
taken  together,  and  reports,  and  on  the  other  hand 
between  specifications  and  contracts.  The  former 
is  the  easier,  and  for  our  purpose,  the  more  im- 
portant. Simply  remarking  that  specifications  are 
usually  a  part  of  contracts,  and  including  both 
under  the  one  heading,  we  may  point  out  two 
main  differences  between  specifications  and  reports. 
One  difference  is  that  reports  have  to  do  with  work 
already  accomplished,  but  specifications  have  to 
do  with  work  yet  to  be  done.  A  report  tells  how  a 
given  task  has  been  carried  out,  a  specification 
tells  how  a  task  is  to  be  carried  out.  The  second 
difference  is  in  the  legal  standing  of  the  two  docu- 
ments. A  report  does  not  have  inherently  any 
legal  significance;  of  course,  a  report  may  come 
to  have  legal  importance  owing  to  some  incident, 
like  a  trespass  of  other  people's  rights,  or  a  mis- 
use of  materials  or  property,  but  there  is  no  in- 


SPECIFICATIONS  AND  CONTRACTS       199 

tended  legal  bearing  in  the  preparation  of  a  report. 
A  specification,  however,  does  have  legal  standing 
as  soon  as  it  is  accepted  as  the  set  of  directions 
by  which  a  certain  piece  of  work  is  to  be  per- 
formed. This  point  is  brought  out  by  the  further 
statement  that  specifications  are  incorporated  into 
the  contracts  signed  by  the  person  or  group  of 
persons  that  authorizes  the  work,  and  the  person 
or  company  that  undertakes  to  execute  the  task. 
Now  let  us  turn  to  the  other  distinction  referred 
to — 'that  between  specifications  and  contracts. 
The  definition  of  specifications  in  Webster's  Dic- 
tionary reads  as  follows:  "A  written  or  printed  de- 
scription of  work  to  be  done,  forming  part  of  the 
contract  and  describing  qualities  of  material  and 
mode  of  construction,  and  also  giving  dimensions 
and  other  information  not  shown  in  the  drawings." 
The  essential  factor  is  the  exact  and  complete 
description  of  the  materials  and  methods  to  be 
adopted  in  any  required  task.  Under  "Contract" 
the  dictionary  quotes  the  famous  law  writer, 
Blackstone:  "An  agreement  upon  sufficient  con- 
sideration to  do  or  not  to  do  a  particular  thing." 
Here  the  legality  of  the  acceptance  of  a  commission 
is  at  stake,  the  details  from  a  technical  standpoint 
being,  of  course,  included,  but  from  the  legal  rather 
then  the  technical  angle.  As  stated,  a  contract 
includes  the  specifications,  sometimes  as  an  in- 
herent part,  sometimes  as  an  appendix, 


2oo  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

Users  of  Specifications.  The  number  of  people 
that  will  be  called  upon  to  write  specifications  is 
not  so  large  as  the  number  that  will  write  reports. 
Specifications  are  a  more  limited  type  of  exposi- 
tion. They  do  come  very  definitely  into  the  prac- 
tice of  architects,  real-estate  men,  building  con- 
tractors, manufacturers,  engineers,  and  inventors. 
These  groups  of  men  frequently  stand  between  the 
capitalist  who  wants  certain  work  done  and  has 
provided  the  money  for  it,  and  the  workmen  who 
do  the  actual  manual  toil  necessary.  The  ideas 
of  the  promoters  are  transferred  to  the  printed 
specifications,  and  from  the  paper  are  transformed 
by  workmen  into  bricks,  stone,  concrete,  steel,  or 
whatever  substance  is  to  be  used.  The  ideas  of  a 
nontechnical  person  are  not  always  feasible  in 
practice;  the  knowledge  of  the  engineer,  using  the 
word  in  a  broad  sense,  reduces  them  to  a  usable 
form.  For  example,  an  architect  frequently  has 
to  alter  the  notions  of  an  inexperienced  house- 
builder  when  he  draws  the  plans.  This  form  will 
be  such  that  the  workmen  will  know  just  how  to 
proceed  with  their  work.  The  whole  theory  and 
practice  of  construction  will  be  involved.  The 
writer  of  specifications  must,  then,  have  a  mind 
capable  of  looking  both  ways — to  the  more  or  less 
tangible  ideas  of  the  promoter,  and  to  the  narrower 
grasp  of  the  manual  worker. 


SPECIFICATIONS  AND  CONTRACTS       201 

Qualities  of  Specifications.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  the  composition  of  specifications,  there  are 
three  essential  characteristics:  accuracy,  clearness, 
and  completeness.  Accuracy  in  this  connection 
means  the  right  word,  the  correct  punctuation, 
the  exact  statement.  Nothing  must  be  left  to  the 
inference  of  the  workmen — all  they  know  is  what 
is  on  the  paper;  they  have  not  talked  with  the  pro- 
moter, or  caught  his  vision.  They  follow  directions 
in  a  slavish  way.  The  thing  that  these  workmen 
must  do,  then,  is  the  thing  that  must  be  put  down 
in  black  and  white  on  the  paper.  Great  pains  must 
be  taken  to  have  the  directions  absolutely  accurate. 
Clearness  means^here  a  laying  out  of  the  work  in 
the  order  in  which  it  is  to  be  done,  and  with  suffi- 
cient detail  to  insure  the  completion  of  the  work 
as  desired.  The  task,  as  a  whole,  must  be  sup- 
ported by  the  details  in  sequence.  A  knowledge 
of  the  mechanical  principles  involved  is  obviously 
essential  to  the  writer,  so  that  the  workmen  may 
begin  at  the  right  place,  and  fit  each  day's  work 
into  that  of  the  preceding  day.  The  clearness  of 
the  directions  will  insure  the  completeness  of  the 
task.  Completeness  means,  then,  that  all  the 
details  necessary  are  to  be  included.  It  further 
means,  from  the  point  of  view  of  English,  the 
grammatical  fullness  of  sentence  structure  that  will 
not  omit  any  words,  or  allow  hazy  reference  of 
personal  pronouns  or  relatives.  The  repetition  of 


202  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

nouns,  even  at  the  expense  of  smoothness  and 
euphony,  is  better  than  any  uncertainty  of 
meaning  resulting  from  shortened  forms  of  ex- 
pression. 

Contracts.  The  subject  matter  of  contracts  in- 
volves the  legal  phases  of  the  task  more  than  it 
does  the  engineering  principles.  The  two  cannot 
be  separated,  however,  because  the  legality  will 
turn  upon  the  interpretation  of  some  engineering 
principle,  fully  as  much  as  upon  financial  or  legal 
considerations.  What  has  been  said  under  the 
characteristics  of  specifications  will  apply  here, 
inasmuch  as  specifications  are,  as  stated,  a  part 
of  the  contract.  The  terms  of  the  contract  have 
to  do  with  the  following  matters:  an  exact  de- 
scription of  the  persons  agreeing  to  the  contract, 
the  period  of  time  for  the  whole  and  for  any  sig- 
nificant parts  of  the  task,  the  financial  obligations  of 
each  side,  penalties,  alterations,  cancellations,  extra 
compensations,  settlement  of  disagreements,  sig- 
natures, dating,  legal  execution  of  the  agreement, 
etc.  The  services  of  a  lawyer  are  almost  essential 
in  the  drawing  up  of  this  type  of  a  document.  If 
the  specifications  are  inserted  before  the  signatures, 
then  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the  work  will  be 
obliged  to  certify  to  the  correctness  of  the  details 
there  given.  If  the  specifications  are  a  supple- 
mentary part  of  the  contract,  so  put  in  order  to 
have  the  contract  itself  as  brief  as  possible,  then 


SPECIFICATIONS  AND  CONTRACTS       203 

the  two  parts  may  be  drawn  independently  and 
combined  when  the  legal  formalities  are  carried 
out.  The  inclusion  of  blue  prints  or  other  drawings 
should  be  arranged  for  carefully,  also.  Often  the 
drawings  are  as  important  to  the  workmen  as  the 
printed  directions.  Frequently  both  are  necessary, 
the  one  to  explain  the  other. 

The  Form.  A  contract  opens  with  a  preamble 
stating  the  conditions  of  the  task  and  the  nature 
of  it,  in  a  broad  way.  The  state  laws  fix  the  form  of 
the  agreement  itself,  but  the  form  of  the  construc- 
tion portions  of  the  specifications  must  be  left  to 
the  best  judgment  of  the  engineer  who  frames 
them.  The  form  will  properly  include  section 
headings,  with  a  systematic  grouping  of  points, 
arranged  in  the  order  of  their  use  by  the  workmen. 
The  order  of  the  headings  is  not  specified,  as  in 
the  case  of  reports,  because  the  nature  of  the  work 
is  varied,  each  problem  requiring  its  own  appro- 
priate order.  The  standard  of  the  English  is  in- 
variable, whatever  the  choice  of  headings,  although 
the  legal  phraseology  is  sometimes  confusing  at 
first.  Cities  prescribe  the  form  of  contracts,  issuing 
pamphlets  containing  the  form  and  all  the  defini- 
tions or  terms  that  the  city  holds  essential  with 
any  bidding  firm.  The  following  is  taken  from 
such  a  pamphlet  printed  by  the  city  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio: 


204  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

CITY  OP  CLEVELAND 
DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE 

ENGINEERING  DIVISION 
CONTRACT  AND  FOR  SPECIFICATIONS 


Then,  on  a  page  by  itself  is  the  form  of  the  ADVER- 
TISEMENT for  the  bids;  this  is  followed,  on  a 
separate  page,  by  INSTRUCTIONS  TO  BIDDERS.  A 
blank  page,  is  then  headed:  APPROXIMATE  QUAN- 
TITIES. The  actual  contract  is  next  given  under 
the  title:  CONTRACT  AND  SPECIFICATIONS.  This 
reads  as  follows: 

This  agreement  made  this day  of A.  D.  19. .,  by 

and  between  the  City  of  Cleveland,  by  its  Director  of  Public 
Service,  in  that  behalf,  duly  authorized  by  ordinance  (resolu- 
tion) No of  the  Council  of  said  City  authorizing  and 

directing  the  expenditure  passed  (adopted)    . . . .  19 . . ,  party 

of  the  first  part,  and  Contractor,  party  of  the  second 

part:  WITNESSETH:  That  the  said  second  party  has  agreed, 
and  by  these  presents  does  agree  with  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part,  for  the  consideration  hereinafter  mentioned  and 
contained,  and  under  the  penalty  expressed  in  a  bond  bearing 
even  date  with  these  presents,  and  hereunto  annexed,  at  his 
(their)  own  risk,  cost,  and  expense  to  do  all  work,  furnish 
all  materials,  labor,  tools,  appliances,  ways  and  means,  and 
construct  and  complete  in  an  expeditious,  substantial  and 
workmanlike  manner,  and  to  the  satisfaction  and  acceptance 
of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Engineering  Division  of  the 
Department  of  Public  Service  ....  in  the  manner  and  under 
the  conditions  and  requirements  hereinafter  specified,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  plans  therefor,  on  file  in  the  office  of  the 
Chief  Engineer,  and  in  accordance  with  such  supplementary 
plans  and  instructions  as  may  be  furnished  from  time  to  time 
by  said  Engineer  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 


SPECIFICATIONS  AND  CONTRACTS       205 

Following  a  blank  page,  headed,  DESCRIPTION 
OF  THE  WORK,  there  appear  the  specific  require- 
ments of  the  city  under  these  headings:  GENERAL 
CONDITIONS,  covering  such  points  as,  Supervision, 
Changes,  Extra  Work,  Risks,  Damages,  Claims, 
Forfeiture,  Obstruction  to  Traffic,  and  Cleaning 
Up;  MATERIAL  AND  WORKMANSHIP,  covering  Foun- 
dation Excavation,  Grading,  Pavements,  etc.; 
PILE  FOUNDATION;  CONCRETE  MASONRY,  giving 
Proportions  and  Tests  for  various  kinds  of  work. 
Then  come  PRICES  OF  CONTRACT,  BONDS,  and 
SURETIES. 

A  sample  contract  for  the  Construction  of  a 
Sewer  shows  the  same  arrangement,  except  that 
the  headings  vary  in  wording  to  apply  to  sewer 
building  rather  than  to  general  structure. 

The  impressive  points  of  such  a  pamphlet  are 
the  legal  nature  of  the  contract  proper  and  the 
minuteness  of  the  items  included  in  the  specifications. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIV 

1.  Clip  from  a  newspaper  an  advertisement  for  bids  for  some 
construction  work;  criticize  the  English. 

2.  Separate  the  descriptive  from  the  expository  material  in 
a  newspaper  advertisement  for  a  bid. 

3.  Discuss  the  characteristics  of  legal  phraseology. 

4.  Answer  an  advertisement  for  a  bid  for  construction  work. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

D.  W.  Mead:   Specifications  and  Contracts. 
J.  I.  Tucker:  Contracts  in  Engineering. 


CHAPTER  XV 

ACCESSORIES   OP   EXPOSITION 

Definition.  Technical  writing  is  seldom  un- 
broken; almost  without  exception  it  makes  use 
of  helps  in  the  form  of  tables  of  statistics,  drawings, 
charts,  or  other  material  to  supplement  the  written 
exposition.  These  helps  may  be  called  the  acces- 
sories of  exposition.  There  is  a  theory  underlying 
their  use  and  there  are  several  methods  of  incor- 
porating them  into  the  text.  Some  of  the  accessories 
are  familiar  to  us  in  other  writing  than  technical 
matter,  as  will  be  noted  as  we  discuss  them.  For 
convenience  we  will  group  them  under  four  main 
heads:  Statistics,  Cuts,  Charts,  and  Statements. 

Statistics.  The  science  of  statistics  is  of  modern 
origin;  it  has  found  an  increasing  usefulness,  until 
now  there  are  not  only  statistical  bureaus,  but  also 
many  statisticians  with  individual  enterprises.  The 
importance  of  statistics  was  brought  out  by  Presi- 
dent Garfield  forty  years  ago  in  these  words: 

The  developments  of  statistics  are  causing  history  to  be 
rewritten.  Till  recently  the  historian  studied  nations  in  the 
aggregate,  and  gave  us  only  the  story  of  princes,  dynasties, 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      207 

sieges  and  battles.  Of  the  people  themselves — the  great  social 
body,  with  life,  growth,  forces,  elements  and  laws  of  its  own — 
he  told  us  nothing.  Now  statistical  inquiry  leads  him  into 
hovels,  homes,  workshops,  mines,  fields,  prisons,  hospitals,  and 
all  other  places  where  human  nature  displays  its  weakness  and 
its  strength.  In  these  explorations  he  discovers  the  seeds  of 
national  growth  and  decay,  and  thus  becomes  the  prophet  of 
his  generation. 

We  may  take  the  following  as  a  definition  of 
statistics:  a  collection  of  figures  or  data  to  show 
the  condition  or  state  of  being  of  anything.  Web- 
ster's Dictionary  calls  them  "classified  facts";  a 
student's  definition  says  they  are  "the  numerical 
statement  of  facts  placed  in  relation  to  each  other." 
The  purpose  is,  of  course,  to  bring  together  figures 
that  represent  the  work  or  the  experience  of  many 
people  and  make  them  easily  comparable  or  usable 
for  drawing  inferences.  No  one  person  can  in- 
vestigate a  phenomenon  wherever  it  exists,  but  a 
great  many  different  persons  can  secure  data  for 
study  and  send  them  to  a  common  clearing  house. 
The  value  of  statistics  can  be  separated  into  three 
phases,  all  interrelated:  (i)  Statistics  are  a  con- 
venient expression  of  facts  as  they  already  exist. 
This  is  the  historical  value,  or  the  value  of  a  record 
of  information  for  reference  or  for  convenience,  in 
compact  arrangement.  (2)  Statistics  are  an  indi- 
cation of  correlation.  This  is  the  analytical  value 
for  the  sake  of  interpreting  present  conditions. 
The  concomitant  variation  of  interdependent  fac- 


208  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

tors  can  often  be  shown  admirably  by  means  of 
statistics.  (3)  Statistics  are  a  basis  for  prediction. 
This  value  suggests  the  importance  of  the  past  in 
foretelling  future  conditions.  Fundamentally,  the 
use  of  statistics  depends  upon  certain  mathematical 
laws,  into  which  we  need  not  go  here.  There  are, 
however,  some  considerations  of  common  sense 
or  good  judgment  that  must  be  observed  if  statistics 
are  to  be  dependable.  A  few  of  the  more  obvious 
cautions  are: 

1.  The  unit  of  statistics  must  be  clearly  stated 
and  explained.    The  importance  of  this  is  seen  in 
financial   figures   when   several   countries   are   in- 
cluded;  are  the  figures  in  American  dollars,  Eng- 
lish pounds,  or  French  francs,  etc.?  are  they  in 
pounds,  bushels,  or  tons?    Similarly  in  the  census 
just  how  are  the  members  of  the  occupations  dis- 
tinguished?   What  puts  a  person  into  a  given  class 
— e.  g.,  farmers,  bankers,  students?   The  unit  of  the 
statistics  must  be  defined  first. 

2.  The  standards  of  the  different  items  must  be 
entirely  comparable.     The  necessity  for  this  cau- 
tion is  illustrated  by  figures  for  illiteracy,  child 
labor,  marriage,  etc.,  for  which  the  laws  are  differ- 
ent in  the  different  states.     In  the  case  of  child 
labor,  for  instance,  one  must  know  the  legal  mini- 
mum ages  for  employment  before  the  figures  for 
two  states  can  be  compared  or  contrasted.    In  the 
case  of  financial  statistics,  the  relative  value  of  the 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      209 

money  standards  in  the  two  countries  must  be 
taken  into  consideration,  as  the  rates  of  exchange 
affect  values  of  two  units. 

3.  A  reasonable  length  of  time  must  be  included 
in  statistics  that  involve  time.    One  must  not  draw 
important  inferences  from  statistics  that  cover  only 
one  or  two  years,  in  such  subjects  as  immigration, 
social    conditions,    exports    or    imports,    business 
failures,  etc.     The  years  chosen  may  have  some 
peculiar  circumstances,  whether  unknown  or  not, 
that   will   have  a  bearing   on   the   value   of   the 
statistics — e.  g.,  war  conditions,  presidential  elec- 
tion, etc. 

4.  The  items  chosen  must  be  typical  of  the 
whole  to  which  they  belong.    An  illustration  would 
be  figures  for  the  labor  turnover.    If  only  one  in- 
dustry is  taken,  say  the  garment  industry,  one 
would  not  be  warranted  in  generalizing  about  all 
industries,  or  if  only  department  stores  were  cited, 
one  could  not  make  a  statement  about  mills  and 
factories. 

Turning  now  to  the  various  forms  in  which 
statistics  may  be  presented,  we  find  four  rather 
common  ones,  each  one  bringing  out  certain  ex- 
cellent ideas. 

i.  Averages.  In  its  mathematical  use  an  aver- 
age is  obtained  by  equalizing  several  varying 
amounts.  It  gives  a  picture  or  a  concept  of  a 
large  group  or  class  by  means  of  a  single  item  taken 


210  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

as  sharing  the  qualities  of  the  whole.  Averages 
are  divided  into  three  types :  arithmetical,  weighted, 
and  geometric.  The  last  is  used  only  in  pure 
mathematics,  where  it  involves  the  multiplica- 
tion of  n  items  of  a  series  and  the  extraction  of  the 
nth  root,  and  need  not  concern  us  here.  The 
arithmetical  average  is  the  simplest,  requiring  the 
addition  of  the  items  and  the  division  of  the  total 
by  the  number  of  items.  The  weighted  average 
gives  to  certain  important  items  of  a  group  an 
arbitrary  value  indicating  their  relative  impor- 
tance, and  multiplies  these  items  by  the  coefficient 
assigned  before  the  sum  is  taken.  Then  the  sum 
is  divided  by  the  sum  of  these  coefficients  or 
weights  (all  items  not  judged  especially  important 
are  considered  as  multiplied  by  unity  and  consti- 
tute the  standard)  instead  of  by  the  mere  number 
of  items.  An  illustration  will  make  the  matter 
clear.  A  college  football  team  is  composed  of 
eleven  men  with  varying  weights.  The  arithmetical 
average  of  the  weight  of  the  men  on  the  team  could 
be  found  easily  by  adding  the  individual  weights 
and  dividing  by  eleven.  This,  however,  would 
not  give  a  very  exact  basis  for  predicting  the 
strength  of  the  team  in  a  certain  game,  or  for  com- 
paring it  with  another  team.  A  fairer  basis  would 
be  to  give  rather  arbitrarily  a  factor  indicating 
the  strategic  value  of  certain  positions  on  the  team ; 
for  instance,  three  to  center  and  each  of  the  guards, 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      211 

two  to  each  of  the  tackles  and  the  half-backs,  and 
one  to  each  of  the  other  four  positions.  The 
weight  of  the  men  in  these  important  positions 
must  be  multiplied  by  the  factors  indicated,  and 
the  total  weights  of  the  eleven  men  obtained  then 
must  be  divided  by  twenty-one,  instead  of  by  eleven. 
If  the  heavy  men  on  the  team  should  be  at  the  ends 
or  at  quarter-back  or  at  full-back,  the  playing 
strength  of  the  team  would  be  less  than  if  they 
were  at  the  positions  indicated  by  the  larger 
factors.  It  is  admitted  that  there  is  a  personal 
element  in  the  assigning  of  the  factors;  one  man's 
judgment  might  differ  from  another  man's  as  to 
the  relative  significance  of  certain  items. 

2.  The  Mode.  If  the  purpose  of  the  exposition 
is  to  show  the  facts  of  greater  frequency,  or  of 
greatest  density,  the  form  of  the  statistics  used  is 
called  the  mode.  The  word  as  used  in  other  con- 
nections suggests  the  prevailing  fashion  or  method ; 
the  same  idea  is  conveyed  in  its  mathematical  use. 
The  mode  is  the  figure  that  indicates  the  item 
occurring  most  frequently,  and  therefore  the  most 
typical  of  the  group.  The  mode  will  give  a  correct 
idea  of  the  whole.  For  instance,  if  a  student's 
theme  papers,  twenty  in  number,  are  graded: 
2  A's,  2  B+'s,  3  B's,  8  B-'s,  2  C+'s,  2  C's,  and 
i  C— ,  the  grade  that  occurs  with  the  greatest 
frequency,  viz.,  B— ,  is  representative  of  the  stu- 


212  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

dent's  ability  in  theme  writing.     It  is  his  mode. 
Little  or  no  calculation  is  required  to  find  it. 

3.  The  Median.     If  there  is  a  fairly  small  group 
of  items,  the  representative  one  or  typical  one  can 
be  found  by  arranging  the  items  in  order  of  size, 
or  value,  and  counting  to  the  middle  one.    Such  an 
item  will  be  so  far  from  the  extremes  at  either  end 
that  it  will  be  a  fairly  correct  standard  for  the 
group.     It  is  called  the  median.     An  illustration 
would  be  to  find  the  average  height  of  a  roomful 
of  people;   if  the  company  is  arranged  in  order  of 
height  and  counted  off  until  the  person  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  line  is  reached,  we  will  find  its  average 
in  the  height  of  that  person.    Both  the  mode  and 
the  median  are,  of  course,  approximate  rather  than 
exact  standards;   however,  they  yield  surprisingly 
accurate  results. 

4.  Tables.    A  table,  in  its  statistical  meaning, 
is  an  arrangement  of  comparable  figures  in  columns 
or  rows,  or  both,  in  order  to  show  the  elements  of 
comparison    clearly.      No    particular    number    of 
figures  is  necessary  before  one  is  warranted  in 
calling  such  a  scheme  a  table;    no  standard  ar- 
rangement is  required  other  than  the  one  named. 
A  table  has  a  heading  or  an  explanatory  statement 
giving  the  unit  involved  or  other  information  nec- 
essary to  an  understanding  of  it.    A  table  has  ad- 
vantages of  compactness,  of  convenience,  and  of 
ease  of  comparison. 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      213 

Cuts.  The  second  form  of  the  accessories  of 
exposition  is  called  cuts,  a  name  that  includes 
diagrams  and  illustrations.  The  word  cut  denotes 
an  impression  left  by  a  plate  or  engraved  block, 


Note  that  The  Chicago  Territory — Zone  7 — has 
only  8.7%  of  the  area  of  the  country,  but  its  farm 
land  is  vryrth  almost  half  as  much  as  that  of  all  the 
rest  of  the  United  States  combined.  The  Chicago 
market  rests  on  the  most  secure  foundation  the 
human  mind  can  conceive — the  fertile  prairies  of 
the  ^gr eat  American  corn  belt.  These  farms  create 
billions  of  dollars  of  new  wealth  each  year.  And 
thts  year's  crop  wilt  break  all  records. 


A  PICTOGRAM 

and  is,  therefore,  a  general  term.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  difference  between  diagrams  and  illustra- 
tions. A  diagram  applies  to  line  drawings,  usually 
showing  construction  or  at  least  arrangement  of 

parts.     An  illustration  is  the  reproduction  of  a 
15 


2i4  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

photograph,  or  of  a  sketch,  showing  external  ap- 
pearance. The  word  Figure  is  usually  used  in  a 
text  to  apply  to  either,  and  figures  are  num- 
bered serially  without  distinction  as  to  whether 
they  are  diagrams  or  illustrations.  The  clear  plac- 
ing of  textual  reference  and  the  cut  is  desirable. 

Charts.  The  third  form  of  the  accessories  of 
exposition  is  charts,  a  term  which  includes  graphs, 
pictograms,  and  cartograms.  A  graph,  or  a  fre- 
quency curve,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  a  curve, 
or  a  series  of  curves,  related  to  co-ordinated  axes. 
There  are  two  factors,  which  acting  together  pro- 
duce or  determine  a  resultant.  The  two  factors 
are  respectively  the  ordinate  and  the  abscissa,  and 
the  resultant  is  the  curve  produced  by  plotting 
and  drawing  the  locations  of  the  intersections  at 
frequent  successive  stages.  Very  commonly  one 
of  the  component  elements  is  the  time  factor.  An 
example  is  the  curve  showing  the  imports  and  ex- 
ports, either  separately  or  together,  covering  a 
period  of  years.  A  pictogram  is  a  series  of  pictures, 
or  bars,  or  sectors  of  circles,  or  facsimile  designs, 
drawn  to  a  scale,  and  showing  the  relative  size  or 
importance  of  the  items  treated.  The  reader  can 
draw  his  own  conclusions  if  the  presentation  be 
accurate.  An  example  of  the  pictogram  is  seen 
in  the  heavy  black  bars  denoting  the  size  of  ele- 
ments of  our  population,  or  the  size  of  the  votes 
in  an  election,  by  states  or  by  parties.  A  cartogram 


YSS//J\  Tbfa/  rating  of  Insfa/ffcf 
motors 


Iron  and  steel  ond 
their  products 

Food  a  not  kindred 
products 

Miscellaneous 


Textiles 

Paper  and  printing 

Electrical  and  allied 
products 
Vehicles  for  fanot 
transportation 

Electro-chemical  and 
metallurgical  proce 

Railroad  repair  shops 

Metals  and  meta? 
products  other  than 
iron  or  steel 

Stone, clay  and  glass 
twmberand  its  products 
leather  end  its  products 
Shipbuilding 

Chemicals  and  its 
products 

Tobacco 

• 1 

10          15         20         E5         30 
Number  of  Installed  Motors, Thousands 

0        30        60       90       120       150       180      210       240      2TO      30<J 
Total  Rating  of  Installed  Motors,  Thousands 

IRON  AND   STEEL  INDUSTRY  LEADS    IN   TOTAL   RATING, 
OF  INSTALLED  MOTORS 


A  PICTOGRAM 


.  ^JVf.Y.V.-Jl    -X-  f5J.  .".".V 


218  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

tions;  the  term  is  also  used  in  astronomy  and,  of 
course,  in  algebra  and  other  branches  of  mathe- 
matics. The  important  point  to  be  noted  in  the 
printing  of  equations  is  to  keep  the  whole  equation 
together  on  one  line  if  possible,  and  if  not  possible, 
then  to  break  it  at  the  sign  of  equality.  Mathe- 
matical expressions  that  include  the  radical  or 
parentheses  must  be  carefully  written  if  they 
occur  in  equations.  Often  the  significance  of  an 
equation  depends  upon  the  near  position  of  other 
equations ;  a  kind  of  tabulated  arrangement  is  then 
desirable.  A  footnote  is  an  item  at  the  bottom  of  a 
page  adding  some  information  to  a  statement  in 
the  text,  identified  by  means  of  a  common  symbol. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  footnotes:  (i)  an  explana- 
tion of  some  point  in  the  text  that  is  supplementary 
rather  than  vital,  perhaps  filling  out  some  detail 
or  giving  some  parallel  thought;  and  (2)  a  citation 
of  reference  or  authority  for  some  information, 
such  as  a  name,  a  publication,  with  volume  (if 
necessary),  and  page  to  be  consulted  for  further 
verification.  In  the  case  of  a  periodical  the  name 
of  the  magazine  is  given,  the  volume,  year,  page, 
author's  name,  and  the  title  of  the  article.  In  gen- 
eral, the  footnotes  give  all  data  essential  for  a 
reader  to  find  exactly  the  place  where  the  original 
of  the  quotation  or  assertion  is  to  be  found.  A 
regular  order  or  form  of  footnote  should  be  fol- 
lowed consistently  in  any  one  book  or  article,  both 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      219 

for  quick  and  easy  understanding  by  the  reader, 
and  for  the  saving  of  time  and  labor  for  the  writer. 
For  a  book  reference  such  as  would  be  used  in 
giving  the  source  of  a  translation  or  a  quotation, 
the  following  form  is  recommended: 

C.  H.  Woolbert,  The  Fundamentals  of  Speech  (Harper,  1920), 
p.  385- 

For  a  magazine  or  newspaper  reference,  the  follow- 
ing is  proper: 

Color  and  Color  Photography.    C.  D.  Hodgman.    Sci.  Am. 
Supp.  84:339-400.    Dec.  22,  1917. 

Sometimes  the  word  See  or  the  Latin  abbreviation 
cf.  is  used  in  front  of  such  a  reference.  It  has  been 
stated  that  the  position  is  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  upon  which  the  citation  occurs;  it  will  be 
well  to  distinguish  between  the  two  types  of  foot- 
notes in  this  matter.  A  growing  practice  is  to  have 
a  different  system  of  symbols  for  the  two  kinds, 
say  small  superior  letters,  or  printer's  signs  like 
the  asterisk,  dagger,  and  symbol  for  section,  for 
footnotes  of  explanation,  and  a  series  of  elevated 
numbers  for  footnotes  of  reference;  and  further, 
to  place  only  the  first  kind  at  the  foot  of  the  page, 
where  they  can  be  read  at  a  glance  in  connection 
with  the  context,  and  to  gather  the  notes  of  refer- 
ence at  end  of  each  chapter,  or  still  more  preferably, 
at  the  end  of  the  last  chapter.  The  advantage  is 


220  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

that  citations  will  seldom  be  looked  up  at  once, 
and  therefore  need  not  take  up  either  the  room 
on  the  page  or  the  time  for  investigation,  and  when 
placed  together  will  serve  as  a  kind  of  bibliography 
for  the  special  reader.  Some  duplication  of  titles 
may  also  be  saved  by  the  use  of  ditto  marks. 
The  frequent  use  of  the  Latin  abbreviation  ibid. 
or  word  idem  is  objectionable  on  the  pages  of  a 
text,  requiring,  as  they  frequently  do,  the  turning 
back  of  several  pages. 

Appendices.  An  appendix  is  a  separate  exhibit 
of  details,  usually  statistics,  although  sometimes 
documents  in  full,  which  are  in  the  nature  of  evi- 
dence or  proof  of  assertions  made  in  the  body 
of  the  writing.  The  presence  of  these  statistics  or 
documents  is  not  essential  to  an  understanding  or 
an  acceptance  of  the  facts  stated;  they  are,  how- 
ever, both  helpful  and  interesting  to  a  close  student 
of  the  subject  matter.  In  textbooks,  illustrative 
material,  sets  of  questions,  exercises,  extended 
quotations,  etc.,  are  put  in  appendices,  each  one 
in  an  appendix  of  a  different  number  in  serial 
order.  An  annual  financial  report  furnishes  a  good 
example,  in  which  the  itemized  statements  of  the 
separate  departments  or  special  funds  are  shown 
after  they  have  been  given  in  summary  in  the 
main  section.  In  this  instance  the  itemized  state- 
ments are  frequently  called  exhibits.  A  textbook 
in  American  history  will  give  the  full  text  of  the 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      221 

Constitution  of  the  United  States  or  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  in  an  appendix,  rather  than 
take  the  pages  necessary  at  the  place  where  men- 
tion is  made  of  their  adoption. 

Other  Helps  in  Books.  Having  discussed  the 
four  main  types  of  accessories  in  exposition,  we 
may  examine  briefly  certain  other  helps  in  the 
preparation  of  books  or  longer  articles  and  reports 
—helps  that  are  found  in  other  types  of  writing 
than  exposition,  but  equally  helpful  here.  First, 
there  is  a  Glossary.  Sometimes  a  book  discusses 
a  subject  that  is  difficult  because  it  is  highly 
specialized,  or  is  devoted  to  a  period  of  time  or 
a  geographical  place  whose  terms  are  partially 
unfamiliar.  The  text  of  such  a  book  will  be  very 
likely  to  have  strange  words  in  it.  Either  because 
they  have  been  outgrown  by  common  usage  or  be- 
cause they  have  a  very  limited  application,  such 
words  will  need  very  careful  explanation  in  order 
that  the  text  as  a  whole  may  be  intelligible.  The 
book  will,  therefore,  have  a  list  of  all  such  words, 
usually  at  the  end,  together  with  their  meanings 
as  understood  by  the  contemporaries  of  the  time 
or  place,  or  by  the  specialists  in  the  subject  matter 
of  the  book.  So  far  as  the  unfamiliar  words  used 
in  that  book  are  concerned  this  list,  called  a  gloss- 
ary, constitutes  a  concise  dictionary  included  within 
the  covers  of  the  book  itself. 

Second,   there  is  the  Index.     An  index  is  an 


222  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  subjects  discussed 
in  the  body  of  the  book,  with  page  numbers  in- 
cluded. In  almost  all  non  fiction  books  the  index 
is  an  important  addition.  It  follows  the  text  and 
all  appendices;  it  must  be  prepared  after  the  page 
proof  is  available.  Sometimes  proper  names  are 
separated  from  subject  words,  making  two  in- 
dices. A  greater  difficulty  is  to  select  clear  and 
reasonable  words  for  the  index  entries.  Frequently 
silly  and  irrelevant  words  are  found,  which  no 
one  looking  for  a  particular  topic  would  think  of 
using.  The  index  must  really  indicate  the  con- 
tents of  the  body  of  the  book,  in  quantity  to  be 
convenient,  and  of  quality  to  be  helpful. 

Third,  there  is  the  Table  of  Contents.  The  chief 
difference  between  an  index  and  a  table  of  con- 
tents is  that  the  former  is  an  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment of  the  topics  treated,  and  the  latter  shows  the 
order  of  topics  adopted  by  the  author  of  the  book. 
The  former,  also,  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume 
and  the  latter  at  the  beginning.  Usually  the  table 
of  contents  consists  of  the  chapter  headings  only, 
sometimes  of  subdivisions  of  chapters.  When  it 
does  give  subdivisions  of  chapters  it  really  con- 
stitutes an  outline  of  the  contents  of  the  book  and 
is  a  good  illustration  of  that  process  of  analysis. 
Its  convenience  in  all  textbooks  is  obvious. 

Fourth,  there  is  the  Preface.  A  preface  is  a 
personal  introductory  statement  by  the  author  or 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      223 

editor  of  a  book,  setting  forth  the  reasons  that 
prompted  the  preparation,  or  the  experiences  that 
justify  the  preparation  of  the  book.  It  tells  the 
purpose  that  the  author  himself  conceives  will  be 
fulfilled  by  the  book.  It  may  further  make  any 
explanation  of  circumstances,  including  assistance 
and  advice  received,  and  make  acknowledgment 
of  such  courtesies.  It  is  the  custom  to  include  a 
preface  in  every  textbook. 

A  person  using  books  should  know  the  function 
of  libraries  and  their  methods,  among  which  are 
Catalogs.  A  catalog  is  a  complete,  systemati- 
cally arranged  guide  to  the  contents  of  a  collection 
of  any  objects.  Catalogs  of  book  collections  that 
are  growing  are  usually  of  the  card-index  type,  one 
entry  on  a  card,  placed  in  strict  alphabetical  order. 
A  somewhat  different  form  of  catalog  is  the  com- 
mercial type  in  common  use  in  business.  Cata- 
logs of  the  products  of  a  factory  or  of  articles  on 
exhibition  are  usually  issued  in  booklet  form,  ar- 
ranged either  alphabetically  or  departmentally  or 
both.  Prices  and  descriptions,  including  order 
numbers,  are  given.  A  catalog  is  intended  to 
aid  a  person  to  find  a  desired  article;  it  should  not 
be  so  cumbersome  or  involved,  therefore,  that  it 
defeats  that  aim. 

Bibliographies.  A  bibliography  is  a  catalog  of 
a  special  and  limited  kind,  in  that  it  gives  a  list 
of  books  or  other  printed  sources,  consulted  for 


224  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

a  certain  piece  of  work,  or  available  on  the  subject 
matter  of  some  special  field.  Bibliographies  are 
desirable  in  all  technical  monographs  or  reports 
that  involve  much  reading  in  their  preparation, 
for  they  reveal  the  range  of  the  investigation.  A 
writer  should  carefully  preserve  the  exact  titles 
and  other  essential  information  of  all  the  works 
he  consults.  The  arrangement  in  the  final  publi- 
cation is  usually  alphabetical  by  authors.  The 
location  in  the  book  is  most  commonly  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  text,  before  any  appendix,  and 
before  the  index.  It  may  be  made  Appendix  I  if 
there  is  a  series  of  appendices.  In  reports  and  in 
some  other  publications,  the  bibliography  often 
precedes  the  statement  of  the  object  of  the  report 
or  the  beginning  of  the  text. 

The  Use  of  a  Library.  A  person  that  is  called 
upon  to  write  should  understand  the  method  used 
in  arranging  and  in  cataloging  books.  In  fact, 
the  use  of  a  card  catalog,  the  chief  points  in  the 
system  of  classifying  books,  and  the  methods  of 
the  organization  of  reference  works,  are  a  part  of 
the  educated  man's  equipment.  Libraries  have  a 
dictionary  card  catalog — i.  e.,  one  that  alpha- 
betizes together  the  author  and  the  subject  cards. 
The  difference  in  spacing  the  names  of  the  author, 
and  the  title  of  the  book,  in  relation  to  the  vertical 
ruled  lines  on  the  card,  indicates  whether  a  card 
shows  a  book  by  somebody  or  about  somebody. 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      225 

The  system  of  book  classification  numbers  which 
most  libraries  use  is  known  as  the  Dewey  Decimal 
System,  or  some  modification  of  it  to  suit  special 
needs.  The  main  divisions,  and  the  subdivisions 
of  its  Useful  Arts  section,  in  this  system  are  as 
follows : 

ooo  General  Reference  Works.   600  General  Works,  Useful 

100  Philosophy.  Arts. 

200  Religion.  610  Medicine. 

300  Sociology.  620  Engineering. 

400  Language  Study.  630  Agriculture. 

500  Natural  Science.  640  Domestic  Economy. 

600  Useful  Arts.  650  Communication  and  Com- 

700  Fine  Arts.  merce. 

800  Literature.  660  Chemical  Technology. 

900  History.  670  Manufactures. 

680  Mechanic  Trades. 

690  Building. 

Each  one  of  the  subdivisions  is  in  turn  divided, 
with  a  logical  numbering  plan,  until  at  last  the 
individual  book  is  reached. 

Reference  Works.  A  writer  should  know  the 
available  reference  works  in  his  field  of  study. 
Each  department  has  its  special  works.  First  there 
are  the  general  encyclopedias  and  dictionaries,  not 
only  in  English  but  in  other  languages  as  well. 
There  are  many  indices  to  books  and  periodicals, 
some  of  them  general,  like  The  Reader's  Guide,  and 
some  of  them  limited,  like  The  Industrial  Arts 
Index.  Many  libraries  and  many  large  industrial 


226  TECHNICAL  EXPOSITION 

companies  issue  bibliographies  of  works  in  their  own 
department.  An  amazing  thing,  to  a  student  in 
research  work,  is  the  extent  of  the  articles  and 
books  already  issued  upon  almost  every  conceivable 
subject,  or  at  least  the  origins  of  that  subject.  Not 
to  know  them  all,  but  to  know  where  to  go  when 
one  wishes  to  find  them  is  a  factor  in  efficiency, 
whether  one's  work  is  for  his  own  satisfaction  or 
for  the  advancement  of  human  knowledge  about 
a  given  subject.  To  write  upon  any  topic  demands 
that  one  gather  about  him  a  great  amount  of  ma- 
terial, that  by  good  judgment  he  sift  the  useful 
from  the  unimportant  in  the  light  of  his  primary 
purpose,  and  that  he  express  his  own  thought 
clearly  and  effectively.  A  knowledge  of  the  sources 
of  material  and  of  the  use  of  these  sources  is  there- 
fore essential  to  anyone  preparing  a  written  dis- 
cussion, especially  so  to  the  student. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XV 

1.  Clip  from  an  advertisement  in  a  magazine  an  example  of 
a  graph,  and  comment  on  its  construction. 

2.  Find  in  some  magazine  an  example  of  a  pictogram;  of  a 
cartogram;  of  a  table  of  statistics. 

3.  Reconstruct  a  table  of  statistics  in  different  form. 

4.  Transfer  the  information  in  a  table  to  the  form  of  a  graph. 

5.  Write  out  an  illustration  of  the  weighted  average. 

6.  Bring  in  examples  of  each  kind  of  footnotes. 

7.  Find  a  book  with  appendices  and  describe  them. 

8.  Name  the  reference  books  on  biography  that  are  available 
to  you. 


ACCESSORIES  OF  EXPOSITION      227 

9.   Report  on  the  system  of  cataloging  used  in  your  school 

library. 

10.   Examine  a  copy  of  tne  U.  S.  Census  Bureau  report  and 
describe  its  organization. 

BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  CONSULTATION 

R.  W.  Sellars:   The  Essentials  of  Logic. 

W.  C.  Brinton:  Graphic  Methods  for  Presenting  Facts. 

U.  S.  Census  Report. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  definition,  80 

rules,  82-86 

Accuracy  in  exposition,  9 
Adjustment  letters,  133,  142 
Advertisement,  construction,  172 

definition,  169 

examples,  177,  178 

qualities,  175 
Advertising,  168 

definition,  169 

kinds,  170 
American  speech,  34 
Analysis,  methods,  93 
Appendices,  220 
Application  letters,  131,  139 
Argumentation,  4,  7 
Artificial  languages,  51 
Averages,  209 

B 

Bibliography,  223 
Brief,  the,  103 


Cartogram,  214,  217 

Catalogs,  223 

Charts,  214 

Clearness  in  exposition,  9 

sentences,  58 

Collection  letters,  134,  144 
Colon,  75,  76 


Comma,  73 

Compound  words,  39,  46 

stages,  47 

varieties,  49 
Contents,  table  of,  222 
Contractions,  79 
Contracts,  definition,  199,  202 

form,  203 

Credit  letters,  134,  143 
Cuts,  213 

D 

Definition  of  words,  15 

kinds,  17 

methods,  19 

process,  16 

rules,  21-23 
Description,  3 
Dictation,  135 
Diction,  52 

rules  for,  53 


Editorial,  the,  154 

examples,  155-157 

outline,  155 

English  language,  the,  31 
Equations,  216 
Exposition,  5-8 

forms,  II 

methods,  n 

qualities,  8 


230 


INDEX 


Filing  systems,  137 
Footnotes,  218 
Formulas,  216 


Glossary,  221 

Grammar  of  sentences,  55 

Graphs,  214 

H 

Headings,  punctuation  of,  79 
Hyphen,  48,  77 


Indexes,  221 


Journalism,  148,  158 


Language  expansion,  38 

methods,  39 
Lead,  the,  151 

examples,  152 
Letter,  business,  125 

form  of,  127 

spirit  of,  136 

types,  130 
Library,  use  of,  224 

M 

Magazine,  160,  162 
Median,  212 
Mode,  211 

N 

Narration,  I 
News  item,  150 


Newspaper,  147,  160 
contents,  149 


Opening  sentence,  108 
Order  letters,  132,  141 
Order  of  topics,  106 
Outline,  101,  104 


Paragraphing,  107 
Paraphrase,  96 
Periodicals,  147,  161 

scientific,  163 

Pictogram,  213,  214,  215     . 
Precision  in  exposition,  9 

sentences,  60 
Preface,  222 
Prefixes,  40 

list  of,  42-43 
Proof,  correction  of,  89 
Psychology  in  advertising,  170 
Punctuation,  importance,  69 

marks  of,  70-76 


Racial  elements  of  language,  28- 

30 

Recommendation  letters,  131 
Reference  works,  225 
Reports,  definition,  181 

forms,  191 

organization,  1 86 

qualities,  184 

readers  of,  193 

specimen,  195 

types,  182 
Request  letters,  132,  140 


INDEX 


.231 


Review,  98 

Rhetoric,  importance  in  sentence, 
56 

S 

Sales  letters,  134,  145 
Science,  influence  on  language,  35 
Semicolon,  74 
Sentence,  definition,  55 

qualities,  58-66 
Specifications,  definition,  198 

qualities,  20 1 

users  of,  200 

Speech   making,   adaptation  in, 
116 

organization,  119 

preparation,  114 

presentation,  122 

significance,  111-112 
Statements,  216 


Statistics,  definition,  206 

value,  207 
Suffixes,  40 

list  of,  44-45 
Summary,  97 
Symbols,  88 
Synonyms,  23 


Tables,  212 

Technical  vocabulary,  27,  50 

writings,  94 
Trade  journals,  165 
Transitions,  121 
Translation,  95 
Types  of  writing,  I 

U 

Unity  in  exposition,  10 
sentences,  64 


THE    END 


023A5 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


